Art

Anna Hamiltons Myein is more than simply artistic representation of imagination. Like most of her works, it corresponds to a text, an event or some similar background. The Myein explores different modes of perception of a displaced object or event and how it induces incoherence and thus is self defeating. It portrays paradoxes within our history and in Hamiltons own words it depicts contradictions (Coffey, 2001). Therefore, the Myein, bleeding from the interior owing to these paradoxes, depicts the circumstances that led to this inner state from its exterior.

Ann Hamilton thus, brings forth the contradictions in our history and questions the development of so called civilized value systems and institutions, such as democracy and liberty that evolved from very different, rather contradicting scenarios such as slavery etc.

It is perhaps simplest to relate Myein to my life experiences as it points out towards some of my own hypocrisies and contradictions between my actions and the values I not only uphold but also instruct. It is particularly relevant in the times when I am complying to certain social norms or actions that I do not completely agree to and therefore can feel the stress upon my inner self.

Ann Hamiltons work is very much comparable to that of Anne Carson, renowned Canadian poet and essayist who tried fictionalizing various Greek mythologies and bringing forth the contradictions that existed therein. She even inspired Hamilton in some of her works as Hamilton relies heavily on research and study before recreating history in artistic terms.

Myein can be interpreted as more than a mere representation of history in open spaces. Its dreamy exterior can also be seen as opposing rather than reciprocating the interior. For me, it is much similar to an individual who pretends to be blissful and content though his life is full of all sorts of stresses making him bleed from the inside.

Sandy Skoglund  Hangers
Sandy Skoglund uses the medium of photography to reproduce and recreate surrealistic images in real life. Her work is defined as depicting scenarios that are either dreamy or completely out of place therefore inspiring awe in the viewers. Hangers is yet another depiction of her bizarre world. It shows a room with yellow walls and pink floor covered throughout with blue hangers, while a man enters the room in a yellow night gown.

The picture depicts a dream like scenario which could not be conceived in sane reality however, it is much more than what meets the eye. Skoglunds art is more about arousing certain responses within the subconscious by unsettling the individual who has entered her bizarre world. This unsettling may come about in the form of shock or amazement followed by an acute discomfort.

One of the most compelling responses Hangers induces in its viewer is related to cognitive dissonance. The picture with its bizarreness triggers a mixed response based on confusion, excitement and discomfort. This is very much similar to what I would experience when smoking as on one end, It induces guilt and on the other it excites and leads to mild pleasure eventually, leaving me confused and stressed on my choice of becoming a smoker.

Similar awry scenarios are depicted in the works of various artists however Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland is a very accurate depiction of Hangers as both worlds seem out of place, perhaps dreamy and surrealistic.

This particular scenario however, can be reconciled with other interpretations as well. Very much different from the artists own interpretation, the room itself may serve as the subconscious of an individual and the hangers show an obsession with some object, especially one of a sexual nature. The subconscious thus, is preoccupied with the individuals sexual obsessions and needs to be released

Rene Magritte  The Lovers
The Lovers, perhaps in the literal sense, is a revisit to Magrittes past traumas and how images of the body of her drowned mother come to affect his perceptions. But the literal is merely an idea conceived through experience, being projected as something much more complex. In The Lovers, Magritte does not provide the meaning and leaves it to the observer to interpret. The wrapped cloth though, presents the only mystery and that is what Magritte intends to do provoke the observers subconscious to draw meanings based upon its own experiences. He deeply regrets the encroachment of rationality in the arts and its value as justification of an artists work as for him, art does not require explicit meaning - it is best left to ones imagination.

The most predominant interpretation as hinted by the artist is that love is blind. Picking up from that, love is not a physical connection but an emotional one. I too experienced that when I developed strong feelings for someone who was much older than me and considering other obvious differences, there seemed no rational explanation for my feelings in the context.

Similarities exist in the work of Lyonel Feininger as he did not believe in the functionality or rationality of art either and left his work open to interpretation. Gaberndorf II is perhaps one of his most prominent works

As my own personal interpretation, The Lovers is portrayal of a sadness that will take over the individual eventually. The pieces of cloth wrapping the faces do not depict blindness of any sort, but links the lovers relationship to the artists own sorrow and trauma that he experienced when he lost his mother. Thus, love eventually leads to sorrow and grief, be it through the loss of ones lover or the conclusion of a relationship.

 Rene Magritte  The Therapist
One of the works that most inspired me was The Therapist by Rene Magritte. What Magritte is trying to depict in this art work, remains unclear and ambiguous, like his other surrealist creations and perhaps that is the beauty of this portrait. It is so explicit and vivid yet unclear in its meaning. In the words of Magritte himself If one looks at a thing with the intention of trying to discover what it means, one ends up no longer seeing the thing itself, but of thinking of the question that is raised. (Keresztes, 2007) In the therapist, Magritte assembles objects from daily life in a vivid manner though still, no definite or explicit relations could be made.

How I bestow meaning to this work solely depends on my interpretation of it. I chose to interpret is as a parent who is cruel, subjugating and unkind toward its siblings one who imposes his will upon them and obstructs their process of intellectual growth.

This work though surrealist in nature, but owing to its openness to interpretation, may be regarded somewhat closer to postmodernist art. Taking the lead from Anthony Giddens, it takes meaning according to the imagination of its interpreter.

A number of other interpretations could be made out of The Therapist owing to the ambiguity of the subject and the setting portrayed. The interpretation that I make here relates the work to Platos Allegory of the Cave.  As seen in the portrait, the birds within the cage depict souls yet to be enlightened of the different forms of wisdom. Their vision is hindered by the veil that causes darkness and prevents them to see all around their cages. Instead, their sight is limited to only one side which remains open.

Different periods in history are characterized and distinguished from each other by significant developments in terms of their intellectual, political, economic, social, and artistic underpinnings. These underpinnings enable the division of the different art forms within the artworld either through the emphasis on the historical interpretation or stylistic interpretation of an artwork. The rationale behind the former lies in the effect of the social and political conditions of a period in the formation of an artwork (Beardsley 128).  The later, on the other hand, is based on the assumption that the formal structures determine the classification of art forms (Beardsley 128). Hence, changes in the socio-political conditions in a period lead to the changes in the predominant art form. In line with this, the following discussion expounds on the argument that the distinctions in the artworks throughout history are primarily caused by their stylistic differences as can be seen in their representation of the same subject in their works. This is another way of stating that artworks merely differ in terms of their intrinsic characteristics since their extrinsic characteristics are always determined by the meanings associated to the subjects depicted in their works during the period of their creation. This is apparent in the utilization and depiction of the female image in the San Vitale mosaic, Empress Theodora and Attendants and Eycks Arnolfini Wedding Portrait.

 The mosaic, Empress Theodora and Attendants (Refer to Fig. 1), portrays Emperor Justinians attempt to utilize art as a tool for imperial unification. Created during the early Byzantine period, which ranged from 527 A.D. to 726 A.D., it represented the union between the rule of the state and the church which is evident not only in the location of the work, that being the San Vitale Church, but also in the inclusion of Christian symbolic images in the mosaic, that being the chalice in Theodoras hand (Gardner, Kleiner, and Mamiya 247-248). The interesting aspect in the mosaic lies in its representation of a female imperial figure that is depicted as a sovereign who has direct power over both the state and the church. As Mclanan argues, although the emperor and the empress were pivotal personas in the Byzantine Empire, there are very few instances where in the image of the empress is included to represent the imperial power over the land (1-3). Theodoras mosaic is more controversial since it also depicts her as a member of the liturgical procession, a position which was only reserved for the Emperor during that time (Standley 164-165). The evidence of her inclusion in the liturgical procession is not only apparent in the chalice in her hand but also in the inclusion of the three Magi in the lower part of her robe (Standley 172). These two objects in her portrait signifies not only her role in the liturgical process, that being the bearer of the primary gifts, but also her role in the empire. It is important to note that her portrait is found on the opposite side of Justinians portrait (Refer to Fig. 2) which signifies their matrimonial rule over the empire. Standley however claims that a comparison of both individuals portrayal in their respective portraits manifests an emphasis on Theodoras power in comparison to her husband (172). He states, When one compares the panelsshe is taller than anyone else in her retinuehoweverJustinianis the same height as the other protagonists in it (Standley 172). This manifests that Theodora wielded greater power over her husband.

Fig. 1
Empress Theodora and Attendants

Fig.2
Justinian and Attendants
The abovementioned depiction of the female figure however does not necessarily imply that the Byzantine period allowed all women to occupy an equal footing with their male counterparts in society. As Mclanan claims, Empresses most distinctive attributewas the fact of their imperial, not their feminine, identity The prominence of women underscores aristocratic or imperial power as against the power of the people in the ancient Greek tradition (3). This shows that representations of women in Byzantine art only allowed the equality of men and women within the members of the aristocratic class. As opposed to this, later paintings, specifically those produced in the Renaissance period did not even enable the equal portrayal of both men and women for even those who belonged to the upper class of society as can be seen in Eycks Arnolfini Wedding Portrait (Refer to Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
Jan Van Eycks Arnolfini Wedding Portrait
Eycks work above was produced during the 15th century, the period of the Renaissance movement which was characterized not only by its emphasis on humanism but also its emphasis on symbolism (Gardner, Kleiner, and Mamiya 403). In comparison to the artists during the Byzantine period who utilized various metals, enamels, and precious stones in the creation of their mosaics, artists during the Renaissance period used paint enamels mixed with oil and other substances in their canvasses (Gardner, Klein, and Mamiya 457). Furthermore, artists during the period focused on depicting three-dimensional images as realistically as possible in a two-dimensional frame by utilizing the one-point or two-point perspective (Gardner, Kleiner, and Mamiya 458). In the case of the Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, its focus on humanism is apparent in the subject of the portrait, that being the marriage ceremony between an extremely wealthy Florentine banker and the daughter of a rich Flemish family (Lewis and Lewis 293). The portrait utilizes symbols that instruct the viewer on the domestic relations enabled by a marriage during the period. An example of this can be seen in the chandelier behind the couple which symbolizes their wealth. The optical illusion created by the chandeliers position behind the couple seems to position it on top of the couples outstretched hands which signifies that their union also involves the union of their families wealth. The portrait, in this sense, presents a visual marriage contract between Arnolfini and his wife. In this contract, the woman is owned by the man. Within the portrait, this is evident as Arnolfini looks straight ahead whereas his wife looks at Arnolfini with her head bowed down suggesting her compliance to Arnolfinis power and role within the family.

Within this context, it is apparent that one of the primary distinctions between the art works produced during the Byzantine period and the Renaissance period lies in their depiction of the female figure within their works. This is another way of stating that although the female figure remains a subject of art throughout the ages, the depiction of her image varies in line with the predominant belief during the time of a works production. In the case of Empress Theodora and Attendant, this is evident as it is possible to portray a female figure in power given that she is a part of the aristocracy. Eycks portrait however shows that, during the Renaissance, even membership in the upper-class prevents a female from being depicted with an equal footing with her male counterpart. This merely shows that the distinction in the artworks from the Byzantine to the Renaissance period does not merely lie in the materials or style used in a portrait. They also lie in the manner in which these materials are utilized to forward a specific social belief. Although both works are similar as they represent the female figure, they vary in terms of their representation of her figure.

The Stele of Naram-Sin and the Stele of Hammurabi

Generally, the two steles are representative of the imperial art of the Mesopotamian civilization. Much like most steles, these two slabs showcase major events or circumstances from their specific eras the Stele of Naram-Sin showing the victory of King Naram-Sin of the Akkadian Dynasty over the mountain people, Lullubi, while the Stele of Hammurabi illustrates the bestowment of judicial power of King Hammurabi of Babylon by the god Shamash. Both also follow a specific style that deviates from earlier stele traditions wherein a main focus is established. But the similarities end there. The steles are made from different materials the first, from pink limestone, and the other, from dark, gray basalt. As for their function, we know that the Stele of Hammurabi contains one of the oldest legal documentation in antiquity, The Hammurabi Code, which details the judicial process of the Mesopotamian Empire. It serves as a form of legal compendium while the the Stele of Naram-Sin on the other hand, serves merely as a celebratory emblem of Naram-Sins victory, showcasing his power as king. In this light, Naram-Sin is shown in the middle of the sculpture, considered a god with the success of his victory. The Stele of Hammurabi, though, shows the King receiving his investiture from the god Shamash, illustrating the role of the King as emissary to the gods instead of a god-like king.

Hagia Sofia, Istanbul and Mosque of Sultan Selim, Edirne

Though historically, the Hagi Sofia came in earlier and as a testament to Roman Catholic faither, whereas the Mosque of Sultan Selim served as a Muslim place of religion all throughout the course of its history, there can be no denying the similarities of the two architectural marvels. Both follow a classical Byzantine style that incorporates the formation of a dome-shaped main hall and the use of spires (four in each). There is a prominent use of arches in the interior for structural support as well as architectural design. What differs between the two are the distinct use of wall treatments. The walls of the Hagia Sofia are famously filled with mosaics detailing early Christian beliefs. Done in bright colors and adorned with gold leaf, these mosaics pertain to the iconography that is prevalent during the Byzantine period. On the other hand, focus was placed on the architectural quality of the mosque, with the interior walls of the Mosque painted only in red to showcase the distinct architectural forms.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple and Rajarajeshvara Temple

Both temples are characteristic of the medieval style of temple-making from the 11th century India, though harkening from two different sub-genres with the Rajarajeshvara Temple inspired by the Dravida style of South India. These two temples were also constructed in dedication to the god Shiva. It also employs the use of the towers or shikharas that tower over the ground. Though both are intricate in design, their styles differ vastly with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple employing a smoother surface that seems to cascade down from the towers. The Rajarashevara Temple, on the other hand, is more angular in terms of the surface design, but, more or less, the two temples arise from the same architectural genre.

Page with Jahangir in Darbar and Hour of Cowdust

The two paintings are reminiscent of the Mughal style, despite the second painting coming from a latter period. Like paintings of this style, the figures are tightly woven together around a definite focal point. But between the two, the Jahangir painting employs a more distinctly vivid coloring, whereas the Hour of Cowdust has a more delicate color palette. Again, the subject of the painting completely differs, with the first painting focusing on the court achievements of its painter, Jahangir. On the other hand, the second painting draws metaphor and allegory from Indian spiritual culture as it shows the god Krishna herding cows into the village using his magic flute, despite being inspired by European naturalism. The differences show the two dominating aspects of Indian life the courtly travails of the elite class, and the spiritually-inspired dealings of the lower class.

The Steles of Hammurabi and Naramsin are both of Akkadian origins. They have been found in Susa, Iran which is not in the boundaries of Mesopotamia. While the Stele of Naramsin is made out of pink limestone which do not yield easily to sculptors, the Hammurabi stele is carved out black diorite, a fine grained stone. It easily yields to the sculptor yet it is proven to be hard and polished enough to last whatever type of destruction. Also, unlike the stele of Naramsin, which depicts the victory of Naramsin against the mountain people, the stele of Hammurabi has inscriptions. These inscriptions talk of the code of laws passed by the gods to Hammurabi. It shows that Hammurabi is of equal footing with the gods. This theme is also found in Naramsins stele. The fact that his image is on top of the slab points of his superiority and that he ranks above the common people.

Both the Hagia Sophia and Mosque of Sultan Selim are in Turkey. These are Islamic mosques which are not only architectural wonders but functional religious locations as well. These churches adopted the Byzantine church styles which was very popular during the times these things were built. However, the Hagia Sophia gained more recognition because of its massive dome, which is partiucular to byzantine architectural design. On the other hand, the Mosque of Sultan Selim carries a more modern feel of byzantine architectural design. It also has a dome like the Hagia Sophia, however, the more noticed part of the mosque are the pillars surrounding the dome. Pillars are typical to middle eastern architecture. It carries the illusion of palm trees in the middle of  desert. It gives the feel of having an oasis in the middle of the hot city. Apart from this, as compared to the Hagia Sophia, this mosque is the only with a mihrab that can be seen from any location of the church. There is no need to stay within a location just to get a glance of the mihrab.

The temples of  Kandariya Mahadeva and  Rajarajeshvara are both Indian temples built during the middle ages. However, the Kandariya Mahadeva temple is more preserved unlike the  Rajarajeshvara. It is surrounded by 84 miniature spires and is made for the destruction god, shiva. Conversely, the latter is  made to commemorate not only one god but three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. For this reason, the temple has three parts. It also has a connecting hallway, which is more modern than the Kandariya Mahadeva  temple. The Kandariya Mahadeva  looks like a huge carved piece of stone and not actually a structure.

The paintings, The Hour of Cowdust and Jahangir Darbar are of Indian origins. Both are depicting the culture of India, the religion which respects cows and the light of the world. The paintings are in canvass and colored with watercolor. Both of the paintings speak of the countrys religion but of different gods. On The Hour of Cowdust, the image of the god there are the cows. On the other hand, on the other painting, the god is he who is the light of the world. The paintings also depict the high respects Indians have on their gods, whether this god is an animal or human with preternatural powers or determination.

Conclusion
 All the pieces provided have things in common like origins and the nature of each works. Most of them come from the same country and almost carrying the same theme. The difference in each is mostly found in the physical aspect of the works. This pertains to the materials used in the creation, the design, and the concept altogether. However, all of them speaks of the same aspect of the country of origins culture. For instance, the paintings both spoke of the Indian religion, the material from which they were made were the same but the theme inside each portrait is different. This is the same case as the other pieces. The templese were all for religious worship but by the way each has been designed, one stands out more as an art piece rather than a place for prayer and worship.

Depicting animals in art played a prominent role in the art history of ancient Near East, Early Christian and Islamic Art. It was very common to use animal figures as themes in these arts. The widely used animal figures were lion, horse, bull and sheep. Lets see in detail how the animal themes were used in the above mentioned arts.

Animal Theme in Ancient Near Eastern Architecture
In the ancient Near East, the civic rulers integrated civic designs into the buildings, gateways and sculptures. For discussion, lets take an example of a specific near eastern art that was a gift of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932. It is the human-headed winged lion called lamassu, the colossal gateway figure at the palace of Assurnasirpal II, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, Iraq). 883-859 BCE. The art work is made of alabaster with a height of 10 feet 3  inches. The structure is now showcased at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Stokstad 25).

It was actually a gateway figure that combined the features of a man, a bull, an eagle and a God. Popularly known as lemassus, it has a mans bearded head, a bulls powerful body, an eagles wings and a Gods horned headdress. The figure was designed in such a way that one can view it from the front or from the sides. To support these views, the creature was made to contain five legs.  When one looks from the front, it seems as if the figure is static with two forelegs placed together. In contrast to it, the side view of the figure shows it vigorously striding.

The fiery lamassus was designed as a manifestation of the power of the ruler they defend. The way they structured its powerful arms and placed them in a prominent location reflects domination in the architecture. Also, the detailed depiction of the creatures beards, feathers, and jewels shows the boundless wealth of the era. The art piece was considered to be an inspiration of civic pride as well as fear. Almost all the art works of the ancient Near East had a great political mission.

The Role of Animal Figures in Early Christian Art
Animals played an important role in the early Christian art. Sheep appears in most of the Christian art works that have an animal theme. A lamb was a symbol of sacrifice during the early Christian era. It is still considered to be a symbolism of Christs sacrifice on the cross as Lamb of God.  In many of the Christian art pieces, you could see a flock of sheep as a representation of the apostles or all Christians who are taken care of by their Good Shepherd, Jesus Christ (Stokstad 238). The authors of New Testament Gospels, Evangelists were linked to the creatures including Saint Matthew (man), Saint Mark (lion), Saint Luke (Ox) and Saint John (eagle).

Another animal figure that one can find in this kind of art is horse. The depiction of the animal in the Old Testament was linked to the prophets Elias and Eliseus followed by mythical powerful horses. In context to the four riders of Apocalypse, horses were meant to be followers of death. It was believed that death rides on a horse. To prove this fact in Christian art, one can show the example of a miniature from an ancient missal showcased at the Diocesan Museum, Zagreb. The art portrays St. George on a powerful horse slays the dangerous dragon and liberates the princess (Skrobonja 104). The art work is a perfect example of how animals were considered prominent in ancient Christian art.

Animal figures in Islamic Art
The people of Islam used to include Islamic art even in the objects that they use in day to day life. One such object is a beautiful textile piece having elephant and camel images from Khurasan, Persia (Iran). It is made of dyed silk with the largest fragment measuring 94 x 52 cm. It is now present at Musee du Louvre, Paris. The art employs a technique and design hailing from Sassanian Persia and also have inscribed kufic scripts within. It is just one example of several spectacular textiles artistically designed in Islamic culture. In the cited example, one could see two elephants facing each other, resembling the theme from the ancient near east (Stokstad).

Animal figures appeared in mosaics, paintings and sculpture of the ancient art. There were also mythic creatures such as lamassus and griffins. Animal themes were an integral part of the Near East, Early Christian and Islamic Art. Near eastern architecture had animal figures with a political taste. Sheep figures were prominent in early Christian Art. In the Islamic Art, animal figures are imprinted even in the household objects.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, or  The Met , as it is commonly known, is a grand museum located in New York City, just along the east edge of Central Park. Housing over two million works of art, The Metropolitan Musueum of Art is considered as one of the biggest art museums in the world.

Within its stately halls and vast rooms are some of the finest art pieces to be ever put on display, not just to be taken in as objects of pure aesthetic pleasure, but to also learn from the ways and culture of the respective times and places that they were borne of. Being in the Metropolitan Museum of Art is a truly excellent way to learn of how artworks from different places share common themes as well as maintain a certain uniqueness that gives them their distinctive qualities. A perfect case regarding this matter are the two pieces the  Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the portrait head of a woman,  and the  column statue of St. Hilary of Galeata .

At first glance one would say that the two pieces of sculptures are very much different from each other. While one seems more realistic in terms of bodily proportion and features, the other is more of an exaggerated representation of a person, like a caricature. But a harder look at both pieces would reveal the underlying themes that factor in a certain commonality between them but first, lets have a look at each sculpture individually.

First is the  Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the Portrait head of a Woman  . As the name implies, the statue is of the Greek goddess Tyche, Fortuna to the Romans who was generally the goddess of luck, as it was believed that she was in charge of what is in store for a city in terms of fortune and prosperity. The goddess is showcased with a different head on its body, as it was customary in the dawn of the 18th century, to have the recently excavated sculptures restored in the Roman workshops to compensate for the damages suffered by the statue over time. This sculpture of Tyche was most probably damaged in the head area, and hence it was replaced by a portrait head of a woman, one most probably recently unearthed as well. It was found out that the sculpture of the body of Tyche, dated at around the Roman imperial Period, was matched with the head which was almost from its time, dating as far back as the late Flavian or early Trajanic period.

The identification of the body is not that difficult as the body carries the trademark items of Tyches which are the cornucopia she carries in her left arm to symbolize prosperity, as well as the rudder in her right arm that signifies her capacity to steer or control events that affect that which she presides over. The portrait of the woman, however, was unrecognizable except for the fact that her hair was fashioned in the arrangements of of late first century AD. Perched on a marble base and elevated for onlookers to get a better view, the Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the Portrait head of a Woman is truly a sight to behold. A quick glance would even lead an onlooker to believe that no restorations or alterations were done to the original.

The Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the Portrait head of a Woman is crafted of fine marble, which is a most suitable medium for depicting deities in an elegant manner. Her stature is that of pride and belongingness, commanding respect and yet still evoking a touch of gentleness. The portraiture heads blank face lends a stern outlook to the sculpture as a whole, as if Tyche was surveying her surroundings with a sense of quiet contentment,.Her elegant, light-looking robes flowing gracefully across her body. This solemn elegance is greatly complemented by the museum interiors and the sidelong lighting cast across her that brings out the details of the sculptures clothing.

The Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata, on the other hand, is a conservative piece of the Italian Saint Hilary of Galeata. It was once said that Hilary exorcised a wealthy noble of a demon that had been ragging him. Hilary was venerated by the man and was given lands and fortune in gratitude. The nobleman also had his whole family christened by Hilary, and eventually had two of his sons to follow in the footsteps of Hilary into Christianity. They had then founded the monastery of Galeata, and soon after, numerous other miracles were attributed to the Saint.

The Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata is a rather dramatic piece of sculpture that depicts the Saint Hilary of Galeata in a wide-eyed gazed transfixed into the distance, grasping a scroll containing scripture, clad in what seems to be thick robes. The portrayal of the saint in this piece is more of a dramatized representation of the beloved Saint, as it is obvious that the sculptor had not been going for anything closely related to realism or hyper-realism. Instead, the sculptor opted to inculcate the necessary features that would help personify Saint Hilary of Galeata. The simplicity of the Saint is also reflected in the manner of which he was sculpted. Most probably working out of a pillar of marble, the sculptor worked to flesh out the well-known saint in a manner that followed the suit of the pillar, creating a restricted upright posture with very few features straying from the original vertical form of the block.

As if to further reflect on the simple life led by many Saints much like Saint Hilary of Galeata, the overall effect of the Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata is that of straightforward simplicity, flaunting nothing of the extravagance or prestige of sainthood but rather the simple background that brings a person to such reverence.

In comparison, it stands that the two sculptures are both of highly venerated figures, one of a goddess that presides among men, while the other is of a man who has risen up to a higher state of being, he idea being those who are of great import and respect are honored in a way that their image is sought to last longer than they do. This immortalization among men is one of the many reasons for visual art since time immemorial.

Another point of comparison is the inherent feeling solemness that shrouds the figures. Both upright and of natural marble tone, relying on detailing to breathe a sense of life into their stone wall facades. The intricate detailing on both pieces are brought to life by the tinge of light delicately washed over the figures from the sides to bring out the shadows in the light creases all over their clothing and accessories. The writings on the Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeatas parchment held in front of the Saint, the folds of his robe, and the deep set features of the face are of the same effect as that of the detailed garb of the goddess of luck as is her intricate hairdo and cornucopia.

The similarities mostly end there though, as the rest of the descriptions tend to branch out from there. On one hand we have the Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna Restored with the Portrait Head of a Woman, features of smooth marble, flowing clothing and an overall smooth, streamlined look, with long smooth lines dominating in the overall outcome This expresses elegance and a sort of ethereal feel or mood as often associated with gods, goddesses, and deities. The Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata however, seems rougher and more coarse, with restrictions to the actual sculpting that limited the figure into a tightly bound column, causing the  figure to appear more  down to earth  and more  human , as opposed to the prestigious personification of the  goddess Tyche. Even the hues of marble denote a difference between that of a higher a being and that of a mere man despite his being venerated and revered.

In summary, the two pieces seem to be depicting two objects of different intent, albeit having the same basic premise of rendering a human body from marble. What is evident from the study of both figures however, is the manner of how they portray to different beings of the same appearance. The elegance and overall smooth qualities of a supernatural being as shown in human form, somehow manages to retain that elegance and ethereal quality by means of flowing lines and a smooth texture, while the elementary simplicity of man, despite being raised to a higher state of being, still shines through with the way he is immortalized with stiffer, heavier lines that give him a more  solid  feel, as well as a face that manages to express emotion despite being set in stone. It is here that we understand not only the beauty of both works, but also in the way man sees himself in relation to those he sacred or holy.

Islam is the second largest religion in the world. In the near future, it is going to be the second largest religion in America (Esposito 1). It is the main religion in 56 countries in the world like Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Egypt, Iraq, and Nigeria. There are also significant numbers of Muslims in India, as well as in China, Russia, and America (2).

Muslims are monotheistic. They believe in only one god. Like the Jews, they also believe in prophets who are also in the Hebrew Bible such as Abraham and Moses in the Old Testament, and Jesus and John the Baptist in the New Testament. Their main prophet is Mohammad (4).

The Muslim people use art and architecture as their expression of faith.  Oftentimes, Islamic art is vibrant and distinctive. However, it is not restricted to religious work, but reflects all the traditions and cultures of the Muslim people (Hussain 1). In the traditional art of the Muslims, their art and architecture are a combination of beauty and use. These are considered as the components of perfection. According to the prophets, perfection is prescribed by god in all things. The basis of this is found in the Hadith of Gabriel which defines religion as a combination of three fundamental principles. The first principle is Islam or the divine will. The second is Iman, which stands for faith. Ihsan stands for spiritual virtue including the idea of beauty and perfection ( Islamic Art  1).

Islamic art has four main concepts which are calligraphy, vegetal patterns, geometric patterns, and figurative representations ( The Nature of Islam Art  1). For the Muslim people, reality is centered on Allah. He is the heart of worship among the people. Thus, Islamic art is focused on spiritual representations of objects and beings and not their physical appearances (Hussain 1). This form of art is therefore restrictive of icons and idols. This aniconism is seen an all art and architecture of the Muslim people.

Strong evidence to the aniconism among the Muslims is their mosques. The most important of these mosques is the Ka ba in Mecca. It is the holiest place for the Muslims. It is believed that it was Abraham that paved the open space around it ( The Ka ba, Mecca  1). The place is decorated by vegetal and geometric patterns. This is a reflection of the Muslims  belief in one god and the consideration that any iconic representation is regarded as blasphemy.

In the Grand Mosque of Kuwait, the interior is also decorated with geometric patterns. Geometry reflects the language of the universe which helps the Muslims perceive life and the greatness of creation. Also, geometry is sacred. Circles are believed to symbolize the immortality and the infinity of Allah. It is also repetitive. It suggests that the simpliest or smallest element can be implied to the whole (Hussain 1).

In India, the most significant Muslim architectural site is the Taj Mahal. It is a great example of the integration of architectural elements in Islamic Asia. The building has complied with Islamic requirements since it also consists of decorative arts such as calligraphy, geometry, and floral forms that are present on its walls. This structure however is greatly opposed by Islamic orthodoxy because of its excessive regard for the dead ( Taj Mahal The Architecture of Love  1).

The Alhambra is a walled city and fortress in Granada, Spain, which was built during the last Islamic sultanate on the Iberian Dynasty.  The place conformed to Islamic requirements because of the use of stone and wood carvings of geometric features that tend to be repetitive ( Islamic Art  1). This repetitive aspect of the architecture is one of the components for Islamic art.

The cultures of Islam have produced rich visual and expressive forms of artwork for centuries.  Spanning countries, continents, and seas, Muslim influence has created beautiful architectural wonders, colorful ceramics, paintings, elaborate calligraphy, and so much more.  Because it is considered blasphemous to recreate images of Allah (God) or Muhammad (The Prophet), religious and cultural expression was pushed in the direction of geometric design, organically inspired images, and linguistic art.

Because Muslims were unable to recreate images of revered religious icons, they produced artwork void of any impression or likeness of these religious figures.  This type of artwork, which is known for a lack of images or icons, is also known as aniconic art.  The Quran is an incredibly sacred component to the Islamic faith and it is only natural that its followers would turn to artful reproduction of verse in the form of calligraphy.  Architecture has also historically been a powerful and common expression of Islamic artistry.

Calligraphy was commonly used to present a more ornate, visually inspiring, and artistic expression of the Quran.  Below is a picture of a manuscript from Yemen in the 14th century, which beautifully illustrates how calligraphy was used to illuminate verses of the Quran.  With a floral motif and the use of gold rosettes, this excerpt from the Islamic Holy Book is enhanced and shown revere for its contents and beauty.  This artistic expression is not meant to supplement the words of the Quran for mere aesthetic value, but provide Muslims an artistic outlet to show respect and admiration for their religion.  The manuscript is aniconic, because it produces an image of religious text, not religious figures.

A more outward representation of calligraphy being used in Islamic art can be found in the construction and decoration of mosques.  Islamic mosques are often built with very ornate architectural techniques and intricate visual details.  Below is a calligraphic design drawn by Yusuf Sezer in 1961 that was used as a blueprint for the dome of a mosque.  Calligraphy on a large scale as an architectural detail is often used to decorate structures that have a high importance in the Islamic culture.  By creating a heightened level of beauty in the place of worship, Muslims show a further dedication to Allah and the Islamic principles.  Again, this type of artwork is considered aniconic because it uses calligraphy as an artistic expression and not the pictorial recreation of religious idols.

One of the most well-known and revered architectural masterpieces of Islamic architecture is the Taj Mahal located in Agra, India.  It was constructed in the mid-17th century and took over 20 years to construct.  The building utilizes the use of domes, numerous calligraphy designs, floral architectural details, decorative tiling, paintings, and expansive murals.  The artwork is so extensive and spans nearly all genres and methods of Islamic artistry.  It is considered a tomb, and shows religious fever and dedication to Islam through all of the sacrifice and hard work that went into its construction, as well as its intricate designs.  The art and architecture of Islamic culture, epitomized by this renowned structure, represents the livelihood and religious devotion of the Islamic people.

Many believe the Islamic principles that govern all aspects of Muslim life are accentuated and shown at their best when exemplified by the close relationship between religion, art, and architecture.  This is why the aesthetic enhancement of mosques is so supported by and beneficial for Islamic culture.  Below is an image of the Sultan Ahmet Mosque, commonly known as the Blue Mosque, located in Istanbul, Turkey.  Constructed in the early 17th century this religious structure beautifully exemplifies harmony, the Islamic way of life, and religious commitment.

Art produced within the Islamic culture is the ultimate representation and reiteration of the Islamic faith.  Religion is such a substantial priority in Muslim life, it is only logical that art would serve to enhance the devotion to, as well as influence and celebration of the Islamic belief system.  It is important to the Islamic way of life that any image of Muhammad the Prophet or Allah not be recreated, and this in turn has created beautiful and ornate artistry in the form of calligraphy, architecture, floral, and geometric design.

The Indian culture has always evoked in a person visions of mysticism and spirituality quite unlike any other civilization. Bred from a millennia of cultural formations, Indian art remains a window into the vibrant soul of this most interesting culture and is a metaphor of the ideologies and beliefs of this amazing people. But most prevailing among these art forms is Indian architecture. According to Diagoro Chihara, architecture shows a peoples religious sentiments that arouse peoples emotions of mystery (Chihara 5). Clearly showing the different factors, mainly Hindi and Buddhist influences, that brought about our understanding of their culture, Indian architecture gives us a look into the Indian worldview, a perspective that gives importance to worship and spiritual tradition. For this paper, we shall focus on Buddhist and Hindu architecture of early Indian societies, and how these have come to perpetuate our understanding of the Indian perspective.

Hindu architecture, whose primary examples are the temple complexes, definitely predates that of Buddhist, having been in existence as a religion a few hundred years earlier. And because it is of spiritual in nature, a major factor in the creation of these buildings entails an assessment of the process in accordance to their belief system. The primary step involves pinpointing the site of the building, a site which was called vastu. Square as a rule, it represents the Supernal or the Cosmic Man and becomes central to the concept of Existence (Burnier and Karmrisch 21). After which the necessary steps towards construction are begun, following either a Nagara style (beehive-shaped) or Dravida style (consisting of smaller pavilions). These characteristics are usually seen in the construction of the towers or shikharas that loom over the ground, a vestigial sign of the temples connection to the heavens.

One of the best examples of Hindu architecture are the Brihadeeswarar Temple, or better known as Rajarajeswaram, in Tamil Nadu and is considered the worlds first complete granite temple and one of the best architectural examples from the Chola Dynasty. Erected in 11th century A.D. by Rajaja Chola the Great, it is part of a grand temple complex that involves seven other shrines around this main temple (Ponniyin Selvan Historical Society 2010). It served as a temple of the Lord Iswara, and like most temples, was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Looking at the shikharas that dominate the skyline, it is evident that the architects opted to follow the Dravida style, with its angular towers that resemble steps that lead to the heaven and to the repose of the soul.

Another excellent example of Hindu architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple found in the Chhatarpur District of Madhya Pradesh. It was built by the Chandella king Vidyadhar around the same time as the Brihadeeswarar Temple was built. Unlike that temple, the Mahadeva Temple, also dedicated to Shiva, was constructed following the smoother lines of the Nagara style and consists of an Mahamandapa, an elevated pavilion supported with pillars. The temple is also famous for its Shivling, a shrine inside one of the main halls containing 800 ornately carved images of the many Hindu deities (Kandariya Mahadeva Temple 2010).

Buddhist architecture also blossomed during Indian antiquity and usually pertains to monasteries, stupas, and temples. At a first glance, there is a great amount of similarity between Hindu and Buddhist architecture, perhaps because of their development within a close vicinity. But, while one might think that the influence came from Hindu architecture because it is an older religion, it is in fact the Buddhist temple structure that influences the method and style of construction of many Hindu edifices. But of all the varying architectural elements of Buddhist architecture, it is the stupa, a brick and plaster edifice that points to the sky as a symbol of the cosmos, that has inspired the formation of the Hindu temple structure, proceeding Buddhist temples in the rest of South East Asia, and the pagodas of China and Japan. Ideally, the stupa should contain a statue of Buddha in its many different forms, and serves more as an altar than anything else.

One of the most famous Buddhist structures found in India is the Maha Bodhi Temple Complex in Bihar, East India. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the vast area is renowned as one of the four holy sites of Prince Siddharta Gautama or Lord Buddha to whom people attribute this far-reaching religion. According to the UNESCO World Heritage Site webpage, it is one of the earliest Buddhist to be made of brick to have survived long years since its creation in the 3rd century B.C. during the Gupta period. The structure follows the same shape as that of the Nagara style of Hindu architecture, a beehive-like dome that is surrounded by smaller spires that are both intricately designed with stone sculptures of deities and devils.

By looking at these art forms we venture into Indias past, understanding what this society values. Like many other civilizations whose temples and religious structures manage to stand the test of time, we can deduce that the Indian people, both past and present, put a real premium on spirituality and the importance of the tradition of worship, no matter what religion you may come from. At the same time, seeing that most of these structures are left to stand, strong and steady, reveal the Indian appreciation of history and tradition. These structures, despite their age, the wear and tear of a millennia of use and misuse, remain, symbols of what the Indian people hold dear.

Impressionism both as a discipline and artistic style influenced a large part of the 20th century as it created better means of appreciating reality. Here, it provided a new definition in establishing forms and diversified the perspective of its application as relates to art and music. Due to this, such style captured the appreciation of the public as it consolidated new means of exemplifying technique with particular emphasis towards diversifying interpretation and meaning.

Analyzing the specific style incorporated by the Impressionist thought, it revolves around the focus over specific objects. In here, considerable dynamics is infused towards this element alongside the favorable use of colors and strokes in order to induce light. The most conspicuous characteristic of Impressionism was an attempt to accurately and objectively record visual reality in terms of transient effects of light and colour (Pioch, 2006, p.1).  Such continues to be the main principle shaping the works of artists such as Monet, Renoir, Sisley, etc.

In terms of music, the Impressionist composers provide a unique sense by incorporating specific styles in their composition and musicality of a specific piece. Here, it corresponds to the process of infusing particular elements such as (1) bitonality, (2) fuzzy chords, (3) modes, (4) new sounds, and (5) pentatonic scale (Capistrano School, 2009, p.1).  Specifically, harmonies then consider establishing better means to convey dynamic and rich harmonies that are corresponded by these elements accordingly.

Seeing this, the value then of Impressionism greatly influenced the development of art and music as it allowed better means for the creation of transcendence from the conventional means of applying artistic standards. By seeking to incorporate new principles, it created both a response to the current status quo and diversified a new means of interpreting and applying these concepts as it relates towards realities. It is through such condition that this artistic style gained its permanence and value from 20th century until today.

The Lamentation over the Dead Christ artwork was painted by an Italian artist called Andrea Mantegna in 1480. Conversely, Giotto made the Lamentation painting between the years 1305 and 1306. Both paintings show various people mourning over Jesus death. Mantegnas painting shows Mary  Jesus mother, and St. John, beside the dead Jesus body the 2 are weeping (Derbes and Sandona 68). In the painting done by Giotto, five human forms surround the body of the dead Jesus Christ. In effect, Giottos Lamentation and Mantegna s Lamentation over the Dead Christ paintings reflect on Jesus suffering from the torture stake to the grave and thus have deep religious connotations.  

For example, in Giottos paintwork, the body of the Christ is held by three women and hence does not touch the ground. This painting thus shows the contacts between Christs body and the mourners. In Giottos paintwork, a young woman, presumably Mary, supports Christs head. The mourners in these two paintings have dull faces which reflect sorrow. In Giottos painting, mountain ridges that intersect the entire composition are well illustrated. Behind the ridges, a tree and 11 angels stand before the huge sky that seems to demonstrate different moods or emotions. The ridges illustrate gaiety while the human figures suggest sadness. In Mantegnas painting, a fierce perspective foreshortens and dramatizes the whole figure. The entire composition thus points to Jesus painful death.

Conversely, there is a very big dissimilarity between Mantegnas and Giottos paintings. As an illustration, in Giottos painting, the figures are much more than the forms in Mantegnas painting.  For instance, Giottos painting has three females and two unknown figures at the foreground. Conversely, in Mantegnas painting, only three persons can be seen in the entire composition. In Giottos painting, Christs body does not touch the ground while in Mantegnas painting the body is portrayed as lying on the ground. In Giottos painting, the foreground is clearly distinguishable from the background, through the sky. On the other hand, Mantegnas painting focuses on the ground, as opposed to the sky.

In Giottos painting, forms of 11 angels who seem to be in different states of emotions are observable. Conversely, in Mantegnas painting, no form of angel is seen. In Mantegnas paint work, various objects are low on compositional plane while in Giottos painting, objects that are on low compositional plane and objects on high compositional plane are clearly shown. This strategy unmistakably shows that some objects are on the ground while the others on the sky. In Mantegnas painting, the feet of Christ have holes to allude to of how he was nailed on the torture stake.

Conversely, in Giottos painting, the feet of Christ are not well shown moreover, no nail marks are shown. Mantegnas painting seems to be strikingly realistic with regard to the foreshortening, while Giottos painting clearly shows heaven and earth joining to mourn the dead savior. The painting of Giotto shows a world which is voluminous and is three dimensional while the Mantegna painting is a simple painting which is like a window framing. In Giottos painting, the union of the earthly with the heavenly is plainly defined. Conversely, in Mantegnas painting, focus is concentrated on the earth. In Mantegnas painting, the body of Christ seems to be big and swollen while the body of Christ in Giotto painting does not show any sign of swelling. In his painting, Mantegna seems to have reduced the size of Christs feet. Otherwise, it could have covered the other parts of the body while the Giotto painting seems to have been proportionally designed. In Giottos painting, jagged diagonal lines, which show mountain ridges, are seen. Conversely, in Mantegnas painting, such lines are not visible.

In Giottos painting, the body of Christ is fully covered. Conversely, in the painting done by Mantegna, the body of Christ is partially-dressed. In addition, Mantegnas paintwork has wrinkles whereas in Giottos painting, the face of Christ does not show any wrinkles. In Giottos painting, the body of Christ is elevated while in Mantegnas painting Christ body is lying on a pinkish slab. The form of a tree is visible in Giottos painting. On the other hand, angels can be seen in Mantegnas paintings. In Giottos painting, the texture of clothing appears soft and smooth against the surrounding contrasting rough rock surfaces. Conversely, in Mantegnas painting, the texture of the garments seem to be rough they seem to be torn. In effect, such characteristics show that Christ endured much suffering from his crucifixion to his death.

These two paintings have similarities since they portray various entities mourning Christ. In Giottos painting, as well as the painting of Mantegna, the body of dead Christ is encircled by other figures. The figure of Mary, as well as that of disciple John, is present in both paintings. In both paintings, the figures surrounding the body of Christ seem to be sorrowful. The mood of both paintings seems to be of great sadness. The paintings made Giotto, as well as that made by Mantegna, are known as Renaissance paintings. Both paintings are symbolic and both artists are remembered for the exceptional work they did many years ago. In the painting of Mantegna as well in the painting of Giotto, light is contrasted with shadow. The realism of the scenes is enhanced by the violent perspective that foreshortens the recumbent figure in both paintings. Mantegnas painting, as well as Giottos painting, depicts an emotional Biblical catastrophe. The color used in both paintings is pastel and complementary. This quality gives the two paintings a feeling of stagnation and movement within the picture plane. The painting of Giotto seems to have rough surfaces surrounding the clothing of the figures in the painting. The same character is evident in the painting of Mantegna whereby the body of the Christ is lying on a rough surface. Mantegnas painting appears to arouse a feeling of Christs suffering. The same feeling is aroused by Giottos painting. The two paintings have a sense of history, that is, they reflect on the problems Christ encountered on the cross and how he later resurrected from the death. Both paintings have clear distinctions in their workings because their various figures can be clearly identified. For example, the body of Christ, Mary, and also the disciple of Christ John are clearly visible.

In conclusion, the two artists, Mantegna and Giotto, did a good work which will forever be remembered. Giottos painting seems to be more advanced than the paintings done by Mantegna because Giotto includes more figures in his paintings. Giottos painting tries to show that Christ has resurrected and that Jesus has accomplished his earthly mission. Conversely, Mantegnas painting portrays Christ after he has been crucified on the cross and taken to the tomb. To all intents and purposes, the 2 paintworks demonstrate that Jesus experienced much suffering before, during, and after crucifixion.    

Anna Hamiltons Myein is more than simply artistic representation of imagination. Like most of her works, it corresponds to a text, an event or some similar background. The Myein explores different modes of perception of a displaced object or event and how it induces incoherence and thus is self defeating. It portrays paradoxes within our history and in Hamiltons own words it depicts contradictions (Coffey, 2001). Therefore, the Myein, bleeding from the interior owing to these paradoxes, depicts the circumstances that led to this inner state from its exterior.

Ann Hamilton thus, brings forth the contradictions in our history and questions the development of so called civilized value systems and institutions, such as democracy and liberty that evolved from very different, rather contradicting scenarios such as slavery etc.

It is perhaps simplest to relate Myein to my life experiences as it points out towards some of my own hypocrisies and contradictions between my actions and the values I not only uphold but also instruct. It is particularly relevant in the times when I am complying to certain social norms or actions that I do not completely agree to and therefore can feel the stress upon my inner self.

Ann Hamiltons work is very much comparable to that of Anne Carson, renowned Canadian poet and essayist who tried fictionalizing various Greek mythologies and bringing forth the contradictions that existed therein. She even inspired Hamilton in some of her works as Hamilton relies heavily on research and study before recreating history in artistic terms.

Myein can be interpreted as more than a mere representation of history in open spaces. Its dreamy exterior can also be seen as opposing rather than reciprocating the interior. For me, it is much similar to an individual who pretends to be blissful and content though his life is full of all sorts of stresses making him bleed from the inside.

Sandy Skoglund  Hangers
Sandy Skoglund uses the medium of photography to reproduce and recreate surrealistic images in real life. Her work is defined as depicting scenarios that are either dreamy or completely out of place therefore inspiring awe in the viewers. Hangers is yet another depiction of her bizarre world. It shows a room with yellow walls and pink floor covered throughout with blue hangers, while a man enters the room in a yellow night gown.

The picture depicts a dream like scenario which could not be conceived in sane reality however, it is much more than what meets the eye. Skoglunds art is more about arousing certain responses within the subconscious by unsettling the individual who has entered her bizarre world. This unsettling may come about in the form of shock or amazement followed by an acute discomfort.

One of the most compelling responses Hangers induces in its viewer is related to cognitive dissonance. The picture with its bizarreness triggers a mixed response based on confusion, excitement and discomfort. This is very much similar to what I would experience when smoking as on one end, It induces guilt and on the other it excites and leads to mild pleasure eventually, leaving me confused and stressed on my choice of becoming a smoker.

Similar awry scenarios are depicted in the works of various artists however Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland is a very accurate depiction of Hangers as both worlds seem out of place, perhaps dreamy and surrealistic.

This particular scenario however, can be reconciled with other interpretations as well. Very much different from the artists own interpretation, the room itself may serve as the subconscious of an individual and the hangers show an obsession with some object, especially one of a sexual nature. The subconscious thus, is preoccupied with the individuals sexual obsessions and needs to be released

Rene Magritte  The Lovers
The Lovers, perhaps in the literal sense, is a revisit to Magrittes past traumas and how images of the body of her drowned mother come to affect his perceptions. But the literal is merely an idea conceived through experience, being projected as something much more complex. In The Lovers, Magritte does not provide the meaning and leaves it to the observer to interpret. The wrapped cloth though, presents the only mystery and that is what Magritte intends to do provoke the observers subconscious to draw meanings based upon its own experiences. He deeply regrets the encroachment of rationality in the arts and its value as justification of an artists work as for him, art does not require explicit meaning - it is best left to ones imagination.

The most predominant interpretation as hinted by the artist is that love is blind. Picking up from that, love is not a physical connection but an emotional one. I too experienced that when I developed strong feelings for someone who was much older than me and considering other obvious differences, there seemed no rational explanation for my feelings in the context.

Similarities exist in the work of Lyonel Feininger as he did not believe in the functionality or rationality of art either and left his work open to interpretation. Gaberndorf II is perhaps one of his most prominent works

As my own personal interpretation, The Lovers is portrayal of a sadness that will take over the individual eventually. The pieces of cloth wrapping the faces do not depict blindness of any sort, but links the lovers relationship to the artists own sorrow and trauma that he experienced when he lost his mother. Thus, love eventually leads to sorrow and grief, be it through the loss of ones lover or the conclusion of a relationship.

 Rene Magritte  The Therapist
One of the works that most inspired me was The Therapist by Rene Magritte. What Magritte is trying to depict in this art work, remains unclear and ambiguous, like his other surrealist creations and perhaps that is the beauty of this portrait. It is so explicit and vivid yet unclear in its meaning. In the words of Magritte himself If one looks at a thing with the intention of trying to discover what it means, one ends up no longer seeing the thing itself, but of thinking of the question that is raised. (Keresztes, 2007) In the therapist, Magritte assembles objects from daily life in a vivid manner though still, no definite or explicit relations could be made.

How I bestow meaning to this work solely depends on my interpretation of it. I chose to interpret is as a parent who is cruel, subjugating and unkind toward its siblings one who imposes his will upon them and obstructs their process of intellectual growth.

This work though surrealist in nature, but owing to its openness to interpretation, may be regarded somewhat closer to postmodernist art. Taking the lead from Anthony Giddens, it takes meaning according to the imagination of its interpreter.

A number of other interpretations could be made out of The Therapist owing to the ambiguity of the subject and the setting portrayed. The interpretation that I make here relates the work to Platos Allegory of the Cave.  As seen in the portrait, the birds within the cage depict souls yet to be enlightened of the different forms of wisdom. Their vision is hindered by the veil that causes darkness and prevents them to see all around their cages. Instead, their sight is limited to only one side which remains open.

The artwork should be designed concentrating in the interior itself, regardless of the external environment where it rests. This will allow the interior designer to work through his masterpiece and not to limit himself with the boundary created by the external environment where his art work resides.

Today, it is very common to see buildings, houses, restaurants, and resorts which are thematic with its surroundingsits external environment. Tall buildings with grotesque  architecture tower all over the suburbs or fancy restaurants with cool and chic appearance imbibe a chilly atmosphere may be more probably seen around classy places. The artist does this to create an ambiance linked with its outside environment. For instance, a scenic painting that goes harmoniously with a plush land filled with verdure or a painting filled with bright colors that is found in a childrens parlor or toy shop. This enables the artist to play just a bit of patterns and shapes that will complement the outside location. Moreover, this sort of compatibility between the artwork and the surroundings is also a beautiful formulation. The harmonies they create also seem to be an artwork by itself. The artwork indirectly brings into mind the external environment where it was created and vice versa.

 A disadvantage for this is that the artist is limited to create designs not beyond the motif of its outside background. If the surrounding looks fabulous, upbeat or is unusually crowded, somber landscapes may be inadvisable. If the surrounding is rather laidback and apparently slow-paced, ornate arts can be claimed to be awkward or inappropriate. The artist has to think about his designs carefully so as not to make an unpleasant result. The whole artwork will be ruined with just a small design that does not fit the outside world. This disadvantage only gets too strict in terms of achieving the harmony between the artwork and its corresponding context. If they do not go well together, it can be easily judged as an artistic failure.

The Eiffel Tower in Paris is one of the best examples of an architecture that is beautiful in itself and harmonious with its external environment. It is one of the tallest structures in the world standing at 984 feet from the ground. It is so tall that you can see its top wherever you are in Paris.

Presently, the Eiffel Tower has become iconic and somewhat like a symbol for the City of Lights. It was designed and created by Gustave Eiffel, a famous architect during the 18th century. The original intention of Eiffel was to apply certain building techniques which he devised. He never though at the onset of building a masterpiece that will leave the entire world awestruck. In fact, he built the tower for the World Exhibition of 1889 and it was supposed to last only until the exhibition ends. Yet it remained standing there  a symbolism of Paris grandeur and affluence.

The Eiffel Tower as a specific creation of art evinces how it can stand independent from its surroundings and influence it instead. As an important structure in Parisian society, the Eiffel Tower can hardly fail in inducing a feeling of pride for being a citizen of Pairs among the people. The very existence of the Tower in that spot where it rests also cements the identity of the city. As a trademark in that place, seeing Eiffel Tower will automatically signal to ones mind that he is in Paris.

To counter the limitation presented by the incongruity between the work of art and its environment, my personal choice will be to create a new sort of canvass for me to work on, without minding where my artwork will reside. This will give me adequate freedom to work on with my capabilities and limitations without me being bounded with possible patterns demanded by the external surrounding. With me not paying attention to anything, I let my full emotions flow and let it do the artwork me. After all, art is all about expressing what you feel and that is how a masterpiece is created. Perhaps this also occupied Gustave Eiffels mind while working on the tower. He did not intend his creation to fit to the design of its environment. The design of the tower was independently done. When it was done and turned out to be fascinating, it exerted its influence on the over-all image of Paris.

Art must not be strictly tied to the contexts where they are planned to be placed. It is not the artwork which must adjust to its surroundings. The artwork can stand independently from it. The artwork can turn out more magnanimous and creative if it is the one that gives substance and meaning to the surroundings where it was born, and not vice versa (Wilkins 176). Art will be more meaningful if it is pregnant with heartfelt feelings or heavy content that radiates from within and show its substance through its outside context.

In addition to that, the freedom in rendering an art in this new sort of canvas can lead to better images. The idea is that art must not be staged. Yes, it must be planned before actually delving on and start doing it, but that act of planning does not concern itself with specific details. It begins with a general plan which will serve as the guide of the artwork. It is in the actual process of doing the art where the specific details naturally come in. Getting rid of any external distraction, the artist can give his entire focus to that black canvas that space where his art is supposed to emerge. By having ones mind focused to the creation of art in that blank canvas, the artist gets more convinced of his artistic abilities and can produce a finer piece of art.

The fineness of this piece of art can be manifested through the kind of impact it will proffer once it is done. Going back to the idea already presented earlier, it is better if art precedes its meaning, and not the other way around. Art seems to lose a huge part of its substance if its content and meaning is already predetermined by the place where it is supposed to be used.

Once that happens, the artwork we claim to possess may not be an artwork, after all. Art must be the source of meaning. As a heightened and beautiful depiction of our world and our experiences, art indeed deserves to have a decisive voice in the realm of ideas. If we disregard the external environment and let art be, it will more probably turn out to be an independent product. This product will then evoke certain things, ingrain particular thoughts, generate significant epiphanies and a whole lot of meaning. If all art is an independent product, not tied up to its environment, they will become the source of a new meaning. In second thought, this suggests that any artistic production, whether in interior designing visual arts or music, will certainly lead to to the modification or production of a new substance, or the delivering of a new message. With the rise of the Eiffel Tower, Paris was also redefined. The classical tower injected a sense of vibrancy and dash to the city. It only reinforced the posh image of Paris. In that sense, the Tower extended the meanings that we previously attach to Paris.

Another benefit of doing an artwork independent from its surroundings is that it maximizes the possibilities of inventing new art that no one has ever thought of before. Instead of getting content with safe collages and tried and tested combinations, an artist can push the envelope further by creating an art that is totally new but is stupendous and laudable. Obviously, this new form of splendor cannot be actualized if the artist is being dictated by the thought of creating an art that is tied up to its surroundings.  This also has something to do with the freedom in artistic production which has been mentioned already. If the artist relishes a freedom in creating his art, he can mix and match particular elements and unconsciously do a trial and error on which elements look good together. Not having to comply to certain requirements, the artist can work more flexibly and the quality of his work need not be sacrificed. Coming up with interesting designs will also become more likely. The artist will move out of the artistic conventions, dwell on the extremes and let his artistic sensibility take him to unchartered avenues of artistic possibilities. Eventually, we might be lavished with new artistic forms that will give new meanings and beauty to our lives.

As a summary, a design must be treated with more emphasis on the interior, rather than on the external which it aims to reflect. Doing this will pave the way for a black canvass to emerge where an artistic practice can be done with less restrictions. Like in the case of Eiffel Tower in Paris, this artistic technique will most likely lead to the formation of a new artwork which have corresponding fresh messages. In addition to that, the new artistic forms will actualize the limitless possibilities of art and open up more doors for further artistic ventures. By eschewing the external and putting ones utter focus on the internal, the artist gets to look more closely at the details of his craft. In the end, the artist gets full control of his art, more probably leading to an artistic product that is of admirably fine quality.

Are computers transforming humanity The answer is obvious, the implications profound
By Mary K. Pratt

This article had discussed the different changes that technology is bringing to our life. Ranging from the new languages, new values, new standards and new goals that tech brought us the article had tried to argue that there are really drastic changes that are happening to all of us because of the advance of technology. Using data from the different studies that were done up to the numerous interviews from different academics and technologist, we had learned that humanity is changing. Whether this is good or bad for humans, there was never a consensus. Despite all of the takeovers of technology in the lives of human, one thing remain the same, human still formulate the final judgment.

Tell-All Generation Learns to Keep Things Offline
By Laura Holson

This article tackled the issues on privacy that are arising with the rise of numerous social networking sites such as Facebook. With the use of some examples, the article tried to discuss the dangers of living out loud and sharing personal information on the web. Different surveys and studies found out the todays youth and young adults are now more vigilant on the kind of information that they publish online. This vigilance translated to legislative lobbying that tried to investigate the information that is under the control and supervision of social networking sites. With these issues on the mainstream, different measures are being done both personal and communal to maintain the privacy of the people that use the web space.

The very spirit of an artwork remains in the time it was created.  There is no better way to appreciate art than to understand its situational context, that is, the space and time of its creation.  Works of art are like photographs taken in a particular time and place.  In this paper we explore the situational context of three works of art (1) the Robert Kennedy Times Magazine cover, (2) HIV Public Enemy No. 1 poster, and (3) Nabatean art. (See Appendix).  All three pieces of art tell interesting, unique tales about their makers and conditions of their times.  We further explore foreign influences in Nabataean art so as to enhance our understanding about socio-cultural and political contexts of artwork.  As layers upon layers of human thought through different times and places of human history are unearthed through this process of art appreciation, our present understanding of historical societies and cultures must influence this process of interpreting art.  Moreover, as one art lover may consider a painting with the eyes of a sociologist in our time, another may be studying for a career in psychology, giving him or her entirely different perspective on artworks under consideration.  Yet another art lover may have perused countless books on the histories of societies that the artworks represent.
   
Regardless of how an artwork is interpreted and with what lens and in which frame it is looked through works of art stay alive as we glean historical information through them.  As the following section on The Robert Kennedy Times Magazine cover shows, it is possible to develop various interpretations about the time and place of an artist even if researched historical information is available to assist us in our interpretation.

The Robert Kennedy Times Magazine Cover
Seeing that the sociopolitical environment of Peru revolved around religious affairs at the time, it is not surprising that the Christian, Peruvian artists started a new art movement  the Cusco School  to create religious art in particular (Bennett).The painting, Wedding of Mary and Joseph, reveals itself as an excellent tool to understand the culture of Peru with respect to Spanish colonization.  By discovering more about the conditions of the artists time, history of the Americas may also be studied in great depth.  
   
This work has several parallels to Roy Liechtensteins Robert Kennedy Times Magazine Cover. The artwork also seems out-of-time from this point in the American historical perspective. Robert Kennedy is depicted looking eerily similar to his brother, Jack, with small red spots and a flash of light around his head. The article for which the cover art was designed, which was titled The Politics of Restoration, was released a mere two weeks before Robert Kennedy was assassinated by multiple gunshots to the head. It benchmarked the end of a new golden era with an uneasy, seemingly-precognitive demonstration of the continuing sociopolitical relevance of art (Times, 1968).
   
The 1968 cover of Times Magazine looked toward and depicted promise. Perhaps the similarity in appearance to John F. Kennedy was intentional, meant to send the message that the Kennedys legacy of hope was still alive. If that was the intent, then it recoiled as the gun did when it unloaded three fatal rounds. The history surrounding art can increase its appeal.


HIV Public Enemy No. 1
As our analysis of Liechtensteins magazine cover show, it is possible to understand the situational context of a painting in any number of ways.  Sociologists and historians may be more interested in discovering the history of society in a block of time.  If psychoanalysts were to join them, there would be various intricacies of the human mind revealed through artworks. There have been attempts by modernist artists Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Rothko to draw the uninhibited ravings of the psyche or feelings, but they have been highly interpretative.
   
On that note, Mother with Child is a very interesting sculpture because there are multiple ways of understanding its import.  On the one hand, the sculpture is a perfect depiction of the pain of starvation that the African people (Mother with Child). The sculpture had been created for a Lulua woman who had experienced difficulties in childbirth.  The Lulua people believed that it was the evil spirit which interrupted the process of childbirth for women.  So that the woman would attract the ancestral spirit of the Lulua tribe and get rid of the evil spirit, the artist gave her the sculpture to care for until delivery.  The bulging eyes of the sculpture reveal that the woman is aware of the influence of the evil spirit that is stopping her from becoming a mother (Lulua Tribe).

The new evil spirit of Africa is AIDS. Much as the Lulua tribesmen derived a sense of protection from the sculptures, HIV Public Enemy No.1 continues in the tradition of protection from harm the artwork was intended to address the rampant social dilemma caused by HIV-related deaths.  One of the so-called AIDS paintings of Yambar in the 1990s, this personified nuisance holds lightning bolts in one hand and stares out of the painting at you with large, red eyes and a skeletal figure that tapers into a jagged, dagger-like point its silhouette, overall form, and ulterior symbolism mirror the Lulua Tribes Mother With Child, despite the span of centuries that separates the production of the two artworks (Yambar, 2005).
   
The AIDS paintings were meant as catchy pop art to promote a realistic sex education. Advertising and pop art are reliant on timely presentation of a catchy concept. Very few people would buy a plain wallpaper featuring a cow head in endless repetition. Andy Warhol made Cow Wallpaper famous through its vibrant, tongue-in-cheek choice of colors. He created it at the cross points of the old guard of modernist painters and the new generation.
   
The AIDS paintings were meant to catch the eye of an audience that is typically inattentive- ironically attempting to address the cause and result of such flaws. It had to be well-timed and catchy but serious.

Foreign influences in Nabataean art
There is no place in the world like Petra  undoubtedly the most well-known legacy of the Nabataeans for the millions of tourists that visit it year after year.  The exceptional beauty of Petras sculpted mountains reveals that the Nabataeans had a dominant culture.  It takes a high degree of confidence, after all, to create such beauty as did the Nabataeans.  History confirms this assumption.  Vries and Osinga state that the Nabataeans at their height spread as far north as Damascus, to the coast of the Mediterranean at Gaza in the east and to Madain Salih in the south.  But, the Nabataean kingdom came under Roman rule in the year 106 A.D.  It became an Arabian province at the time (Vries and Osinga).
   
The Nabataeans were caravan drivers on a large scale.  Roman traders visited Petra even before the Nabataean kingdom was taken over by the Romans.  These traders came to conclude transportation agreements with the Nabataeans.  The latter traveled around the world with merchandise  between the Red Sea and the Nile, and sometimes as far away as the Delta (Sartre, Porter, and Rawlings 268).

Unsurprisingly, therefore, their temples expose a variety of influences on the hearts and minds of the Nabataeans (Vries and Osinga).  Vries  Osinga write,
The many structures are so diverse that it is difficult to categorize them, at least without oversimplifying or overlooking what may be important details.  Philip Hammond, who excavated the Temple of the Winged Lions, concludes that it might be more faithful to the diversity of the temples to see them not as derivatives of Iranian temples, Roman temples or other, but to recognize the borrowing of constructional and decorative technique and to concentrate on why each was unique. (Vries and Oringa)

Sartre, Porter and Rawlings state that the Nabataeans were so influenced by Greek art  following the Roman invasion  that they spread that influence in many parts of Arabia.  Nude heroes of the Greeks have been found in Arabia and believed to have been conveyed there by the Nabataeans (Sartre, Porter and Rawlings 269).  But, Vries and Oringa have uncovered Egyptian influence in the temples of Nabataeans to boot.  Describing one of the most significant temples left by the Nabataeans, the authors state,

The Wadi Rum temple took its layout from Egyptian models, specifically the Egyptian Temple Dayr Chelouit.  The only reference to the Roman world would be columns of the Wadi Rum Temple.  Dharih might also be kin to the Egyptian Temple of Coptos, while the Qasr al-Bint and the Temple of the Winged Lions find construction parallels there also. (Vries and Oringa)  

Then again, Greek andor Roman influence seems to be most profound.  Although temple plans of the Nabataeans do not appear typically Roman, decoration outside of the temples may be recognized as distinctly Roman andor Hellenistic.  As an example, the external decoration of Khasneh makes it appear as though it was built in Alexandria (Vries and Oringa).  However, Vries and Oringa argue that the Nabataeans did not simply copy the designs that were handed down to them by Romans.  Instead, they took influence in their stride, sometimes appropriating the general structure but modifying and adapting it as time went on (Vries and Oringa).  In other words, they were open to influence, but also believed in maintaining their local traditions.  Taylor agrees with this view.  In her book, Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, she explains that the Nabataeans did not make copies as slaves would.  Rather, Greek ideas were amazingly transformed by the Nabataeans into works of art keeping a distinctively Nabataean flavor (Taylor 92).  No wonder, Petra remains as an incomparable feast for the eyes for all lovers of art.
   
Vries and Oringa write that the art of Nabataeans, in particular the sculptures they made, also changed from era to era that is, even before the Romans came to rule the Nabataean kingdom, the Nabataeans went on altering their artistic style (Vries and Oringa).  Perhaps their visits to foreign lands brought such changes to the art of the kingdom.  But, once the Romans had arrived on the scene, the Nabataeans did not only borrow the artistic styles of the Greeks but also others.  The sculptures of deities in Tannur, for example, appear both Hellenistic and Oriental.  The Nabataeans also seem to have been influenced by Syrian art, as revealed through sculptures at both Dharih and Tannur (Vries and Oringa).
   
Although Hellenistic artistic style of classical proportions is most often cited as an influence on Nabataean art, there were plenty of sculptures made by the Nabataeans that did not appear Greek at all even though they were made while the Nabataeans were living under Roman rule (Vries and Oringa).  Vries and Oringa cite the simple standing block as an example of such artwork.  The fact that the Nabataeans maintained their local flavor in their artistic style shows that these people did not lose their cultural identity at the time.  Even the Romans may have delighted in diversity revealed through Nabataean art.

Similarly, Possible Worlds, as directed by Robert LePage, explores the story of a man who believes in his simultaneous existence in multiple places and times. His consciousness can selectively choose which of his bodies in which to settle and inhabit. This mind-and-body separation is behind the mystical theories concerning the Nabatean mythology and art. Mysteries of the world are a cultural and historical phenomenon in themselves that have not gone unnoticed by the various types of media. (Possible Worlds Summary).

Imitation in art Is it a problem
Today, we refer to our world as a global village.  Using the Internet, we are aware that interaction with people from different parts of the world requires a certain level of integration, even if it only means that they should know our language.  As the Nabataeans interacted with people from around the globe, they too must have experienced the need to know their respective languages.  Art, too, is a language.  It gains importance as a language when we cannot communicate with people from other parts of the world in ways other than simple gestures.  What is more, it is but human nature to be influenced by the environment.  If foreigners occupy our environment we are bound to be influenced by them.  Most importantly, this does not render a perfect work of art imperfect, as the individuality of Petra clearly shows.      
   
As another example to understand influence in the world of art, let us assume that an American learns the German language well enough to write poetry in the foreign language.  Does this mean that his or her poetry would be distinctively German in character  No.  The expressions that the American poet employs would be German although the identity or personality of the poet revealed through his or her work would remain American and exhibit the same quirks of character.
   
Ingress famous painting Grand Odalisque has been a guest of the Met many times, despite the provocatively-positioned woman who comprises the foreground. It is said that Ingres chose the turban to mirror Italian artist Michelangelos Madonna della Sedia (Madonna and Child). Yet the form, the turban, and the style of the woman in Grand Odalisque does not stale because of selective application of previous artistic concepts (Ingres, 1814).
   
High-minded artistic predecessors aside, since the feminist movement- in the eyes of some- it is merely another degrading painting of a naked woman. The Guerrilla Girls form a group of women who adopt famous female artists name and produce the feminist response to the objectification of women in mainstream culture while wearing gorilla masks. They distributed their own odalisque wearing a gorilla mask and sporting this statement Do Women Have to Be Naked to Get into the Met. Museum (Guerilla Girls, 2006).
   
Perhaps this is one of the best ways to understand influence in art.  Integration, diversity, and learning through integration are all good.  They lead to creative change.  The world of art would become static without this, without a naked, turban-wearing woman, and without a naked, turban-headed gorilla.

Then again, as the greatest Greek philosopher, Plato would put it imitation in art is bad because artists are representing God, the most creative one.  Hence, imitation or adaptation in art must necessarily replace the reality of something with falsehood, thereby shaking the very foundation of being human, that is, an image of God on earth (Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation).  With all due respect to Plato, he did not see the religious and artistic masterpieces that adorned the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

Conclusion
We focused on the historical conditions surrounding the before-and-after view of Time Magazines 1968 Robert Kennedy.  We examined the social dilemma producing the need for AIDS Public Enemy No.1. Finally, we considered foreign influences on art of the Nabataeans that continues to be admired today like all other pieces of artwork discussed thus far.
   
Although this discussion was centered on political, societal and cultural contexts of works of art, it was clarified as part of the discussion that an artwork may be appreciated in any number of ways.  There are countless theories and innumerable stories about the history of mankind.  What is more, each piece of artwork tells a tale about the space and time of its artist alone.  The work lives on as students of art and historians delve into artwork over and again.  Any number of assumptions could be made about the situational context of an artwork thus.  Art lovers may even choose to offer excuses on behalf of imitators, as our discussion on imitation as a problem in art reveals.
   
Perhaps, therefore, it is reasonable to state that a work of art has as many minds as interpreters as the number of people that consider the artwork through the passage of time.  Moreover, only assumptions can be made about the situational context of an artwork.  History is best left to those that lived it.  After all, we only make educated guesses about what people of the past lived through to gather useful information for our lives in the present.  We cannot even be sure that historians have told us the absolute truth in their tomes of history.