Art

The very spirit of an artwork remains in the time it was created.  There is no better way to appreciate art than to understand its situational context, that is, the space and time of its creation.  Works of art are like photographs taken in a particular time and place.  In this paper we explore the situational context of three works of art (1) the Robert Kennedy Times Magazine cover, (2) HIV Public Enemy No. 1 poster, and (3) Nabatean art. (See Appendix).  All three pieces of art tell interesting, unique tales about their makers and conditions of their times.  We further explore foreign influences in Nabataean art so as to enhance our understanding about socio-cultural and political contexts of artwork.  As layers upon layers of human thought through different times and places of human history are unearthed through this process of art appreciation, our present understanding of historical societies and cultures must influence this process of interpreting art.  Moreover, as one art lover may consider a painting with the eyes of a sociologist in our time, another may be studying for a career in psychology, giving him or her entirely different perspective on artworks under consideration.  Yet another art lover may have perused countless books on the histories of societies that the artworks represent.
   
Regardless of how an artwork is interpreted and with what lens and in which frame it is looked through works of art stay alive as we glean historical information through them.  As the following section on The Robert Kennedy Times Magazine cover shows, it is possible to develop various interpretations about the time and place of an artist even if researched historical information is available to assist us in our interpretation.

The Robert Kennedy Times Magazine Cover
Seeing that the sociopolitical environment of Peru revolved around religious affairs at the time, it is not surprising that the Christian, Peruvian artists started a new art movement  the Cusco School  to create religious art in particular (Bennett).The painting, Wedding of Mary and Joseph, reveals itself as an excellent tool to understand the culture of Peru with respect to Spanish colonization.  By discovering more about the conditions of the artists time, history of the Americas may also be studied in great depth.  
   
This work has several parallels to Roy Liechtensteins Robert Kennedy Times Magazine Cover. The artwork also seems out-of-time from this point in the American historical perspective. Robert Kennedy is depicted looking eerily similar to his brother, Jack, with small red spots and a flash of light around his head. The article for which the cover art was designed, which was titled The Politics of Restoration, was released a mere two weeks before Robert Kennedy was assassinated by multiple gunshots to the head. It benchmarked the end of a new golden era with an uneasy, seemingly-precognitive demonstration of the continuing sociopolitical relevance of art (Times, 1968).
   
The 1968 cover of Times Magazine looked toward and depicted promise. Perhaps the similarity in appearance to John F. Kennedy was intentional, meant to send the message that the Kennedys legacy of hope was still alive. If that was the intent, then it recoiled as the gun did when it unloaded three fatal rounds. The history surrounding art can increase its appeal.


HIV Public Enemy No. 1
As our analysis of Liechtensteins magazine cover show, it is possible to understand the situational context of a painting in any number of ways.  Sociologists and historians may be more interested in discovering the history of society in a block of time.  If psychoanalysts were to join them, there would be various intricacies of the human mind revealed through artworks. There have been attempts by modernist artists Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Rothko to draw the uninhibited ravings of the psyche or feelings, but they have been highly interpretative.
   
On that note, Mother with Child is a very interesting sculpture because there are multiple ways of understanding its import.  On the one hand, the sculpture is a perfect depiction of the pain of starvation that the African people (Mother with Child). The sculpture had been created for a Lulua woman who had experienced difficulties in childbirth.  The Lulua people believed that it was the evil spirit which interrupted the process of childbirth for women.  So that the woman would attract the ancestral spirit of the Lulua tribe and get rid of the evil spirit, the artist gave her the sculpture to care for until delivery.  The bulging eyes of the sculpture reveal that the woman is aware of the influence of the evil spirit that is stopping her from becoming a mother (Lulua Tribe).

The new evil spirit of Africa is AIDS. Much as the Lulua tribesmen derived a sense of protection from the sculptures, HIV Public Enemy No.1 continues in the tradition of protection from harm the artwork was intended to address the rampant social dilemma caused by HIV-related deaths.  One of the so-called AIDS paintings of Yambar in the 1990s, this personified nuisance holds lightning bolts in one hand and stares out of the painting at you with large, red eyes and a skeletal figure that tapers into a jagged, dagger-like point its silhouette, overall form, and ulterior symbolism mirror the Lulua Tribes Mother With Child, despite the span of centuries that separates the production of the two artworks (Yambar, 2005).
   
The AIDS paintings were meant as catchy pop art to promote a realistic sex education. Advertising and pop art are reliant on timely presentation of a catchy concept. Very few people would buy a plain wallpaper featuring a cow head in endless repetition. Andy Warhol made Cow Wallpaper famous through its vibrant, tongue-in-cheek choice of colors. He created it at the cross points of the old guard of modernist painters and the new generation.
   
The AIDS paintings were meant to catch the eye of an audience that is typically inattentive- ironically attempting to address the cause and result of such flaws. It had to be well-timed and catchy but serious.

Foreign influences in Nabataean art
There is no place in the world like Petra  undoubtedly the most well-known legacy of the Nabataeans for the millions of tourists that visit it year after year.  The exceptional beauty of Petras sculpted mountains reveals that the Nabataeans had a dominant culture.  It takes a high degree of confidence, after all, to create such beauty as did the Nabataeans.  History confirms this assumption.  Vries and Osinga state that the Nabataeans at their height spread as far north as Damascus, to the coast of the Mediterranean at Gaza in the east and to Madain Salih in the south.  But, the Nabataean kingdom came under Roman rule in the year 106 A.D.  It became an Arabian province at the time (Vries and Osinga).
   
The Nabataeans were caravan drivers on a large scale.  Roman traders visited Petra even before the Nabataean kingdom was taken over by the Romans.  These traders came to conclude transportation agreements with the Nabataeans.  The latter traveled around the world with merchandise  between the Red Sea and the Nile, and sometimes as far away as the Delta (Sartre, Porter, and Rawlings 268).

Unsurprisingly, therefore, their temples expose a variety of influences on the hearts and minds of the Nabataeans (Vries and Osinga).  Vries  Osinga write,
The many structures are so diverse that it is difficult to categorize them, at least without oversimplifying or overlooking what may be important details.  Philip Hammond, who excavated the Temple of the Winged Lions, concludes that it might be more faithful to the diversity of the temples to see them not as derivatives of Iranian temples, Roman temples or other, but to recognize the borrowing of constructional and decorative technique and to concentrate on why each was unique. (Vries and Oringa)

Sartre, Porter and Rawlings state that the Nabataeans were so influenced by Greek art  following the Roman invasion  that they spread that influence in many parts of Arabia.  Nude heroes of the Greeks have been found in Arabia and believed to have been conveyed there by the Nabataeans (Sartre, Porter and Rawlings 269).  But, Vries and Oringa have uncovered Egyptian influence in the temples of Nabataeans to boot.  Describing one of the most significant temples left by the Nabataeans, the authors state,

The Wadi Rum temple took its layout from Egyptian models, specifically the Egyptian Temple Dayr Chelouit.  The only reference to the Roman world would be columns of the Wadi Rum Temple.  Dharih might also be kin to the Egyptian Temple of Coptos, while the Qasr al-Bint and the Temple of the Winged Lions find construction parallels there also. (Vries and Oringa)  

Then again, Greek andor Roman influence seems to be most profound.  Although temple plans of the Nabataeans do not appear typically Roman, decoration outside of the temples may be recognized as distinctly Roman andor Hellenistic.  As an example, the external decoration of Khasneh makes it appear as though it was built in Alexandria (Vries and Oringa).  However, Vries and Oringa argue that the Nabataeans did not simply copy the designs that were handed down to them by Romans.  Instead, they took influence in their stride, sometimes appropriating the general structure but modifying and adapting it as time went on (Vries and Oringa).  In other words, they were open to influence, but also believed in maintaining their local traditions.  Taylor agrees with this view.  In her book, Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, she explains that the Nabataeans did not make copies as slaves would.  Rather, Greek ideas were amazingly transformed by the Nabataeans into works of art keeping a distinctively Nabataean flavor (Taylor 92).  No wonder, Petra remains as an incomparable feast for the eyes for all lovers of art.
   
Vries and Oringa write that the art of Nabataeans, in particular the sculptures they made, also changed from era to era that is, even before the Romans came to rule the Nabataean kingdom, the Nabataeans went on altering their artistic style (Vries and Oringa).  Perhaps their visits to foreign lands brought such changes to the art of the kingdom.  But, once the Romans had arrived on the scene, the Nabataeans did not only borrow the artistic styles of the Greeks but also others.  The sculptures of deities in Tannur, for example, appear both Hellenistic and Oriental.  The Nabataeans also seem to have been influenced by Syrian art, as revealed through sculptures at both Dharih and Tannur (Vries and Oringa).
   
Although Hellenistic artistic style of classical proportions is most often cited as an influence on Nabataean art, there were plenty of sculptures made by the Nabataeans that did not appear Greek at all even though they were made while the Nabataeans were living under Roman rule (Vries and Oringa).  Vries and Oringa cite the simple standing block as an example of such artwork.  The fact that the Nabataeans maintained their local flavor in their artistic style shows that these people did not lose their cultural identity at the time.  Even the Romans may have delighted in diversity revealed through Nabataean art.

Similarly, Possible Worlds, as directed by Robert LePage, explores the story of a man who believes in his simultaneous existence in multiple places and times. His consciousness can selectively choose which of his bodies in which to settle and inhabit. This mind-and-body separation is behind the mystical theories concerning the Nabatean mythology and art. Mysteries of the world are a cultural and historical phenomenon in themselves that have not gone unnoticed by the various types of media. (Possible Worlds Summary).

Imitation in art Is it a problem
Today, we refer to our world as a global village.  Using the Internet, we are aware that interaction with people from different parts of the world requires a certain level of integration, even if it only means that they should know our language.  As the Nabataeans interacted with people from around the globe, they too must have experienced the need to know their respective languages.  Art, too, is a language.  It gains importance as a language when we cannot communicate with people from other parts of the world in ways other than simple gestures.  What is more, it is but human nature to be influenced by the environment.  If foreigners occupy our environment we are bound to be influenced by them.  Most importantly, this does not render a perfect work of art imperfect, as the individuality of Petra clearly shows.      
   
As another example to understand influence in the world of art, let us assume that an American learns the German language well enough to write poetry in the foreign language.  Does this mean that his or her poetry would be distinctively German in character  No.  The expressions that the American poet employs would be German although the identity or personality of the poet revealed through his or her work would remain American and exhibit the same quirks of character.
   
Ingress famous painting Grand Odalisque has been a guest of the Met many times, despite the provocatively-positioned woman who comprises the foreground. It is said that Ingres chose the turban to mirror Italian artist Michelangelos Madonna della Sedia (Madonna and Child). Yet the form, the turban, and the style of the woman in Grand Odalisque does not stale because of selective application of previous artistic concepts (Ingres, 1814).
   
High-minded artistic predecessors aside, since the feminist movement- in the eyes of some- it is merely another degrading painting of a naked woman. The Guerrilla Girls form a group of women who adopt famous female artists name and produce the feminist response to the objectification of women in mainstream culture while wearing gorilla masks. They distributed their own odalisque wearing a gorilla mask and sporting this statement Do Women Have to Be Naked to Get into the Met. Museum (Guerilla Girls, 2006).
   
Perhaps this is one of the best ways to understand influence in art.  Integration, diversity, and learning through integration are all good.  They lead to creative change.  The world of art would become static without this, without a naked, turban-wearing woman, and without a naked, turban-headed gorilla.

Then again, as the greatest Greek philosopher, Plato would put it imitation in art is bad because artists are representing God, the most creative one.  Hence, imitation or adaptation in art must necessarily replace the reality of something with falsehood, thereby shaking the very foundation of being human, that is, an image of God on earth (Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation).  With all due respect to Plato, he did not see the religious and artistic masterpieces that adorned the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

Conclusion
We focused on the historical conditions surrounding the before-and-after view of Time Magazines 1968 Robert Kennedy.  We examined the social dilemma producing the need for AIDS Public Enemy No.1. Finally, we considered foreign influences on art of the Nabataeans that continues to be admired today like all other pieces of artwork discussed thus far.
   
Although this discussion was centered on political, societal and cultural contexts of works of art, it was clarified as part of the discussion that an artwork may be appreciated in any number of ways.  There are countless theories and innumerable stories about the history of mankind.  What is more, each piece of artwork tells a tale about the space and time of its artist alone.  The work lives on as students of art and historians delve into artwork over and again.  Any number of assumptions could be made about the situational context of an artwork thus.  Art lovers may even choose to offer excuses on behalf of imitators, as our discussion on imitation as a problem in art reveals.
   
Perhaps, therefore, it is reasonable to state that a work of art has as many minds as interpreters as the number of people that consider the artwork through the passage of time.  Moreover, only assumptions can be made about the situational context of an artwork.  History is best left to those that lived it.  After all, we only make educated guesses about what people of the past lived through to gather useful information for our lives in the present.  We cannot even be sure that historians have told us the absolute truth in their tomes of history.

The Renaissance was a movement that marked the end of the Middle Ages, ushering the coming of the modern period.  The word itself essentially meant a rebirth in the sense that the period was actually a revival and a resurgence, particularly of the classical culture and influences of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In Italy, where the movement started, the people were constantly surrounded by the ancient ruins which served as a constant reminder of what they were and what they had.  This further gained momentum following the Black Death that decimated half the population of Europe.  Because the established institutions at the time, notably the church, could not address the crises, people sought answers elsewhere, thus giving birth to the humanist movement which tended to put greater emphasis on the individual.  Whenever the word Renaissance is invoked, what would immediately come into mind would be art, and to a certain extent, architecture  the styles, the works, as well as the individuals behind it. They used the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans as their model, putting emphasis on the characteristics of proportion and symmetry.  In the case of the arts, a lot of emphasis was put into depicting subjects as realistically as possible without exaggerating nor skimping on the details to achieve the desired realism, which the artists felt were the right and proper thing to do and they did this by going against the norms at the time which was relatively medieval.

When speaks of the Renaissance, one particular Italian city would stand out  Florence. During those times, Italy was divided and organized along the lines of city-states which enjoyed a great degree of autonomy from one another.  It was one of the prosperous city-states at the time and it proved to be fertile ground for the development artistic and intellectual freedom, sparking movements that would make an impact to at least two specific fields  arts and architecture.   Culturally and intellectually, Greek scholars fled to Italy following the fall of Constantinople, bringing with them classical texts which would prove to be a valuable contribution to the development of the Renaissance.  Its economic prosperity had somewhat given its people a considerable degree of empowerment to better their lives, expressed either in the acquisition of wealth or to seek perfection in what they did and this was entirely on their own initiative without the need of a moral arbiter in the church, whose credibility as a moral arbiter was somewhat compromised during the Black Death.  Politically, Florence was governed by the Medici family who were very influential and served as sponsors for several artists and artisans and in doing so, gave them a free hand and were not disappointed in investing with them.

Artists such as Donatello (art) and Filippo Brunalleschi (architecture) represented a new breed of artists that were influenced by these factors.  They went to Rome and elsewhere to study ancient ruins and art and these had a profound influence on their works.  In the case of architecture, as demonstrated by Brunalleschi, emphasis was put in the use of columns patterned in the classic style, Ionic, Doric and Corinthian styles, for the arcades he designed as well as creating symmetry and harmonious proportions (Fitzpatrick, 2005, pp.11-12) which would rival the styles of the High Middle Ages seen in the majestic churches and cathedrals which were the only architectural wonders then.  Yet, Bruschellis patrons also included the church and helped design such as the Foundling Hospital and the Old Sacristy which was financed by the Medicis (Brucker, 1983, pp.33-34).  Donatello carved free-standing statues instead of bas reliefs and gave them life-like features such as his version of David, depicted as the slayer of Goliath.  It was also very classical in the sense that David is depicted in the nude as well, another trademark of humanistRenaissance art (Fitzpatrick, 2005, pp.11-12).

Besides Donatello, discussing the Renaissance would not be complete without discussing the three other titans of the period such as Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.  Raphael was a painter and most of his subjects are religious in themes such as the Madonna.  His style reflected the vision of humanists in bringing together all belief systems into a grand unifying synthesis of natural and revealed truth (Graham-Dixon, 1999, p.221).

Michelangelo and Da Vinci were perhaps the most prolific artists of the period as they churned out one masterpiece after the other as they had an ongoing rivalry as painters.  But before taking to painting, Michelangelo was a sculptor and had produced impressive works such as the Pieta, Moses and his version of David which differed from Donatellos.  His works also followed the classical lines and he was very masterful in even adding the appropriate expressions on the faces of his subjects, especially the Pieta where the sorrowful Mary cradled the dead Christ in her arms  but he was perhaps more known for his immense murals that adorn the Vatican depicting scenes from the Bible, his most laborious work (Graham-Dixon, 1999, p.200, 213).  Da Vinci was Michelangelos rival and he also created equally great works.  What is perhaps his most notable one is the Mona Lisa where he was able to capture that alluring smile nobody could duplicate ((Graham-Dixon, 1999, p.150-152).
The Reformation, as well as the Counter Reformation, caught up with the Renaissance and it had also influenced other artists such as Bernini whose subjects were a mix of Greek mythological figures as well as Christian personages.  Besides his sculptures, he was famous for helping design St. Peters Basilica to what it is to this day.  Despite the humanistic approach of the Renaissance, it wanted to prove, contrary to what most people assumed, that its ideas did not contradict nor go against the teachings of the Church nor was it anti-Catholic, that it signaled a return to paganism (Graham-Dixon, 1999, p.321).

Neoclassicism is defined as any work that has achieved canonic status but the basis would still be the classical styles of the Renaissance. This was represented in the works of Jacques-Louis David, a painter.  His works make use of the classical style but in doing so, uphold the spirit of the French Revolution.  This was evident in his work, depicting the Tennis Court Oath by members of the Middle Class in an act of defiance from the bloc voting of the Estates-General.  David, showed the requisite proportionality and humanity in the subjects depicted here and at the same time, gave it some spirit or elan to accentuate the sense of superiority of these people in opposing what appeared to be an unjust system (Graham-Dixon, 1999, p.322).

One can conclude that the Renaissance changed the world, not only in art but in the way people think though art was also used to convey that way of thinking as well and it would persist to the present day.

The Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) stands out in its location with its huge, layered rectangular layered contemporary faade.  Its walls reflect the sunny climate of the place with its beige paint and behind this faade is a lower wide building housing the extensive collection of the museum.

The museum is actually separate building fused into one and some areas are still currently under construction.  Inside, the museum is divided into various wings and levels each housing a different collection.  The old wing appropriately houses older pieces of art such as those from the Renaissance period.  A new wing which is currently in the final stages of construction, the Robert Anderson building is where contemporary art can be found.  The lower levels of the museum are reserved for temporary exhibits such as the ones featured currently, the American Stories Paintings of Everyday Life, 17651915, Myths, Legends, and Cultural Renewal Wagners Sources, In the Service of The Buddha Tibetan Furniture from the Hayward Family Collection, and Contemporary Projects 12 Robin Rhode.  The LACMA is located at 5905 Wilshire Boulevard.

The piece I chose is titled, The Raising of Lazarus by Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from Holland, Amsterdam.  The painting is a 37 1516 X 32 in. (96.36 X 81.28 cm) oil on panel piece created some time in the 1630s.

The painting portrays Jesus with his right hand raised standing over the tomb of Lazarus while Lazarus emerges from his tomb.  Surrounding Jesus are other personages who are assumedly Mary with three other bearded men.  To the viewers right are weapons seemingly hanging from the wall of the tomb.

I chose this work because I am fascinated with the work of Rembrandt as well as with painting that have religious themes.  I am also interested in paintings coming from the early 1600s.  Other than just this inherent interest in these particular kinds of paintings, I also felt some kind of emotional attachment to the painting because it portrays one of the wonders of Jesus during His lifetime.  I find the painting very appealing because of the particular biblical incident that it portrays and the visual impact the painting had on me.

Perhaps the artist is expressing his own faith convictions in this painting, such as confidence in the Divine in overcoming death.  On the other hand, the artist may just have created the painting under the commission of some catholic patrons during his time.  Nevertheless, the painting, while focusing on a particular subject expresses the emotions and perceptions of the artist in the way it is done.  Looking at the painting I feel that it conveys and expresses the dark and enigmatic phenomenon of death.  However, the expression of the face of Jesus in the painting seems to convey a feeling of hope despite the gruesome and almost scary expression on the face of Lazarus.  The expression on the faces of the other spectators reflect the same awe that I feel for the painting while the subjects express an awe at the wonder that Jesus performed, I am awed at how detailed and visually stimulating the painting still is centuries after it was created.

The painting features dark and subdued colors such as blacks, brows, and deep reds, perhaps to effectively convey the atmosphere within the tomb.  What is noticeable in the painting is the stark and painstaking attention to detail of the subjects set against the blurred background.  This works to effectively give the subjects dimension like they were popping out of the panel.  Light is used sparingly in this painting, as shown in the minimal light filtering in through the opening of the tomb, to express the encroachment of this element into the darkness of the tomb.  The lines between the subjects and the background are blurred giving the illusion that everything bleeds into one another and concealing the distinctive boundaries between each element.  The painting, by blurring some of the elements, also give the illusion of depth and how the darkness is able to embrace some of the subjects such as the little boy directly in front of Jesus.  The arrangement of the subjects in the painting are done in such that the painting is heavier on the viewers left where there are more elements that in the viewers right where the only subject featured is the rising Lazarus.  Perhaps the artist intended it to be this way to focus attention on Lazarus, who is, after all, the main event in the painting.  Putting Jesus in an area where there are other people also diminishes the focus on this particular element because if this was not done, the Jesus element would probably grab the attention that was intended for Lazarus.  The interesting aspect of this painting is the weapons hanging in the tomb in the viewers upper right.  While it was normal during this period to bury the possessions of the dead with them, these implements contain some kind of symbolism, perhaps related to mans struggle against death, or mans struggle with the darkness of despair.  In was drawn to this painting in particular because of the contrast offered between light and dark, not only in the colors and the style of the painting, but in how the artist was able to translate these artistic elements into the substantial contrast of the theme light and dark, life and death.  In effect, the artist was able to express the subject effectively because of artistic technique and the use of artistic elements that worked together to convey the emotions of the theme.

Considered as the most eminent building and a model of canonical Doric architecture (Robertson 80), the Temple of Zeus stands at the very centre of the Altis in Olympia, Peloponnese Greece. It was built by the Eleans from the rewards of the Triphylian war (Elean conquest of the Pisatans, 470BC).  This temple was dedicated to the god of the sky and ruler of Gods, Zeus, who was immemorially worshipped in the Altis (Robertson, 79). It was constructed between 470BC to 456BC by architect Libon of Elis and was the first great monument of classical art and architecture at Olympia, site of the Olympic Games (Kleiner, 119).
   
This hexastyle temple was constructed with limestone and white stucco with a wooden ceiling. It also comprised of thirteen columns (10.43mtrs high, 2.25mtrs in diameter-base) at the sides with an east-west orientation. The roof tiles and lions head water spouts were made of Parian marble. The temple had three rooms-the pronaos, naos and opisthodomos. The pronaos constituted of the throne of Arimnestos and a statue of Iphitos. At the centre of the naos (at the centre of the aisle) stood the chryselephantine statue of Zeus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World built by sculptor Phidias in 435BC. The statue was carved with ivory and covered in gold plating. The throne was made of cedar wood, emblazoned with ivory, gold and precious stones. A small statue of Nike in the right hand and an eagle perched on the left hand of the sculpture. The opisthodomos was a place for the public to assemble. The east pediment of the temple depicts the Olympic games-chariot race between Oinomaos and Pelops. At the centre of the pediment was the judge, Zeus. To his right stood Oinomaos and Sterope and to his left were Pelops and Hippodamia. They were followed by the racers chariots, horses, servants and the river gods Kladeos and Alpheios. The west pediment of the temple depicts the wedding feast of Peirithoos, King of Lapith. At the centre of this pediment was Apollo with statues of Peirithoos and Theseus on either side fighting to save the guests from centaurs.
   
According to Martin Robertson, the decorated metopes of the temple of Zeus stand above the front and rear porches depicting the twelve labours of Herakles. Figure sculptures consisted in twelve metopes and in two gables (80). The metopes were carved in Perian marble between 470 and 457BC. Six metopes (1.6mtrs high and 1.5mtrs across) stood on either side of the temple over the porches of pronaos and opisthodomos. The temple was burnt on the orders of Theodosius II in 426AD and was finally destroyed in 5th century AD in an earthquake. As Kleiner describes, today the structure is in ruins, its picturesque tumbled column drums an eloquent reminder of the effect of the passage of time on even the grandest monuments humans have built (119).
   
Herakles (or Hercules-the glory of Hera) was the greatest and the most popular hero of ancient Greece. His deeds of bravery are notable in tales, sculptures and paintings of the primordial world. Born in Thebes, Herakles (born out an illicit affair) was the son of Zeus and Alcmene. Though Zeus wished to have Herakles as the King of Mycenae, Hera (Zeus wife) delayed his birth so that his cousin Eurystheus could be born earlier and crowned as king. As Heras hatred for Herakles grew, she sent two serpents to his cot when he was a baby. At the first display of his power, Herakles strangled both the snakes. When Herakles grew, he saved Thebes from an attack by a lion in Mt. Kithairon. In return, he was given King Kreons daughter Megara in marriage. Herakles was living happily with his family. But as Heras hatred grew for Herakles, she sent him into a fit of madness due to which Herakles killed his wife and children. When he recovered, he went to the oracle of Apollo at Delphi to rid him of the crime. God Apollo sent him to work for King Eurystheus and perform the 12 heroic labours the king would set for him which would cleanse the evil from his spirit. As Cohen states, it was Eurystheus, King of Mycenae for whom Herakles performed his labours wherein Eurystheus gained power and control over Herakles only because of Goddess Hera (90-91).
   
The metopes of the Temple of Zeus depict the 12 labors of Herakles. West Side of the Temple, over the opisthodomos

The Nemean Lion (1st) The ferocious king of beasts had impenetrable skin and was thus invulnerable to weapons. Herakles mustered all his courage and killed the lion using his own hands. On the metope, divine protector Athena and the messenger God Hermes stand by the victorious Herakles.
The Lernaean Hydra (2nd) The hydra was a vicious sea creature with a monstrous body and 9 heads (8 mortal, 1 immortal). It had ruined a swamp near Lerna and was destroying the cattle and countryside in the plains. Herkales was constantly attacked by a crab while trying to kill the serpent. Hence with the help of his nephew Iolaos, he cut the necks of the snake and Iolaos seared them with fire, finally burying the immortal head. The metope depicts Herakles and the hydra.

The Keryneian Hind (3rd) Herakles chased the hind for a year finally capturing it by firing an arrow on its leg. It was sacred to Artmeis and hence brought back live to Mycenae. Athena assisted Herakles in this endeavour. The metope depicts Herakles holding the hind.

The Stymphalion Birds (6th) Herakles was asked to remove the man-eating birds which had infested Lake Stymphalis in Arcadia. He first scared them by clashing bronze castanets on a mountain. As the birds flew, he killed them with his slingshot. The metope depicts Herakles showing off his prowess to Athena.

The Cretan Bull (7th) Herakles was sent to Crete to catch a notorious bull called Minotaur who roamed around wild and caused great havoc. Herakles captured the bull unaided and brought it to Eurystheus in Mycenae who set it free again. The metope depicts Herakles with the notorious bull.
The girdle of Hippolyte (9th) Admete, daughter of King Eurystheus desired the belt of Ares (God of war) which Hippolyte, Queen of the Amazons, possessed as a mark of superiority above women. Herakles was sent to acquire the belt which he did by killing Hippolyte in a battle (though Hippolyte agreed to give the belt, Hera tricked Herakles by telling everyone that he was kidnapping Hippolyte due to which a battle took place). The metope depicts Herakles killing Hippolyte.

East Side of the Temple, over the pronaos
The Erymanthain Boar (4th) The boar was causing havoc at Mt. Erymanthos and was ordered to be bought back live by King Eurystheus. Herakles captured the boar and carried it over his head to a king who himself hid in a jar. The metope depicts the heroism of Herakles.

The stables of Augeias (5th) Augeias, the King of Elis, ordered Herakles to clear the stables off the dung which had collected over time from a huge herd of cattle. The metope depicts Athena standing behind Herakles while he is cleaning the stables.

The mares of Diomedes (8th) Herakles was sent to Bistones, Thrace to capture the mares of King Diomedes. Once captured, Diomedes attacked Herakles to retrieve them. As Herakles fought with the Thracians, he asked his friend Abderos to take care of the mares. The mares were man-eaters and killed Abderos. In anger, Herakles killed Diomedes and fed him to his own horses. The mares henceforth went calmly to Mycenae and were later killed by wild beasts. The metope depicts Herakles and the mares.

The cattle of Geryon (10th) Geryon was a man joined by three bodies at the hip who possessed a herd of famous cattle on an island in the west Mediterranean. King Eurystheus sent Herakles to capture the herd which Herakles brought back to Mycenae after numerous difficulties and killing Geryon. The metope depicts Herakles killing Geryon.

Apples of the Hesperides (11th) Herakles was asked to fetch golden apples which were given to Zeus and Hera by their grandmother Gaia. The apples were kept in the Atlantic and guarded by a dragon and the daughters of Atlas and Hesperis. Herakles tricked Atlas, took the apples and handed them to Eurystheus. Eurystheus in return gave the apples back to Athena who returned them to their proper place. The metope depicts Atlas giving the apples to Herakles who is supporting the universe (with Athena standing behind).

The taming of Kerberos, the Hound of Hell (12th) Kerberos was the guard dog of Hades with three heads and a biting tail. Hades allowed Herakles to take the dog but without using any weapons. Using only his arms, with the help of Hermes, Herakles captured the ferocious dog and brought it to Eurystheus, who finally returned it to Hades. The metope depicts Hermes with Herakles dragging the leash of the tamed dog.      
         
After the 12 Labors, Hercules rescued the princess of Troy from a hungry sea-monster and helped Zeus in winning a battle for the rule of Olympus.
   
Herakles then married Dei Aniera, the daughter of Dionysos. Due to some reasons they had to escape. During this journey Herakles shot Nessos, a centaur who was trying to ravish Dei Aniera. While dying, Nessos gave some of his blood to Dei Aniera to smear upon Herakles if he lost interest in her. As time passed, Herakles fell in love with Iole. When Des Aniera found out she smeared the blood of Nessos on Herakles clothes which burned Herakles terribly. Herakles, in great pain went to Mt. Oite, sat on a pyre and asked the passers by to light it. Once lighted, it began to burn Herakles alive. Zeus, seeing Herakles in pain, sent Athena who brought him back to Olympus on her chariot. Hera ended her anger and married her daughter Hebe to Herakles, who gave him everlasting youth.

Having one of the oldest histories of art, culture and civilization, China has come through a long journey to discover the true essence of nature and how to preserve it in their famous Landscape paintings. The art of landscape painting evolved in the late Tang dynasty. I will hereby discuss what made the artists twist their paint brushes in such a way that that their paintings became a dialogue with nature. What thought and intention lay behind these famous Chinese Landscape paintings.

A Brief history of China
Chinese art has a history of 7000 years. The vast land of China has developed a wide range of colors of various cultures and civilizations over these years. The art and culture of China changed with the different ruling dynasties over the time. The Chinese art took different forms by the influence of new religions, great philosophers and men, even political figures. As early as the Neolithic Period 6000 BC, the Chinese art forms were made from pottery, whereas the last Neolithic age brought the Jade culture along the Yangtze River which flourished for 1300 years, before the Bronze Age. Various forms of Chinese art are silk, calligraphy, paintings, folk art, paper cuts, sculpture and metal art.

From early times China was controlled by a strong centralized government with an emperor at the head, supported by a highly educated civil service. Although ancestor worship was important and the Chinese ruling class commissioned craftsmen to make superb bronze vessels and glazed terracotta figures for the graves of their dead, they did not consider that these were the highest art forms. What they really valued, and practiced themselves, was calligraphy (hand writing) and the associated art of painting scenes on silk or paper scrolls, which were unrolled and contemplated at leisure. Later on, Buddhist monks were to make their contribution to this tradition which involved a sensitive response to nature as well as skill with pen and brush.

Buddhism was to gain enthusiastic support from all over the east. Chinese architectural form, the rectangular hall with heavy tiled roof was formed one on top of another to create a pagoda. Statues of the Buddha, his attendants and disciples were made from gilded and painted wood, terracotta, lacquer or bronze. By the 14th century, however, this sort of public display had given way to simplicity in the exquisite art of flower arrangement, and the dry rock and gravel gardens, or the streams flowing peacefully, which were all viewed like a picture.

In 100 AD, Buddhism came to China, but it did not start flourishing until the 4th century. Indian artistic ideas were carried by traders into the South  East Asia where they inspired temples and sculptures based on Indian models, notably the Angkor Vat in Cambodia. (The Hamlyn Encyclopedia, 452).

The Tang Dynasty (618-906 AD) openly took influences of Buddhist style of art and architecture. By now the art of painting figures had also reached the height of excellence. Until the late Tang dynasty, Taoism arose directing many towards the message of harmony with nature. Until now Chinese were more portraying people in their art works. They had been painting their life styles, illustrating the bravery of their kings and great people, and notifying them as the absolute power, as made in the Buddhist paintings. But now, they had started observing nature, the same mountains and rivers were observed with a very different eye, even the animals were painted with such vigor and energy that could make one feel them alive. This was advent of the art of landscape painting.

Taoism
While the Confucius concentrated on conduct and behavior within Chinese religion, the Taoist schools of teachers were more concerned with the philosophical thought. Taoist belief has been explained in a book called The Classic of the Way Tao and its Power Tao Te Ching written by Lao Tzu. Little is known about him, but that he resigned from an official post to live a simple life. Dao is untranslatable but it best described as the Way or way of the method of living, philosophically meaning the changeless reality of Nature. The ideal man learns to live in harmony with this reality. He becomes passive and receptive, so that Tao is able to influence all his thoughts and actions. The supreme virtue is wu-wei (do nothing) which means no action, not interfering, not apposing things, but living in harmony with nature, and all men.(the Encyclopedia of living faiths, 376) There is no supreme God in Taoism, but in fact it is itself denoted as the Great Void, meaning complete nothingness. Tao or Dao has been described as the basic way or method, being the source of everything. According to the Zhuangzi and the Daode jing, that Tao cannot be named or described as it is beyond anything that can be captured or encircled, but it keeps the space of personal experience. It is the absolute source of energy that has no form. Having no form, because it exists before anything has taken form, the Dao can take all forms it is both formless and multiform, and transforms according to circumstances. No one can claim or know it. As the source of everything, it is infinite and endless (de) its Virtue or Efficacy is power and light, and encompasses all life. The concept of Daode jing and the Zhuangzi is about the necessity of following the natural order of the Dao and of Nourishing Life (yangsheng), sustaining that this is adequate for ones own well-being.
Tao is the fundamental basis of everything. Its emptiness and oneness is all universal, all pervading, all embracing all indestructible, this is the power of Tao, and Te is the virtue.

According to Little, the Tao symbolizes the fundamental Taoist view of the structure of reality, namely that beyond the duality of phenomenal existence, created through the interaction of yin and yang, is the unity of the Tao, which exists beyond time and space.

The symbol of Yin Yang can be clearly seen in this diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, called Zhang Huang, from the Ming dynasty, 17th century.

Everything HYPERLINK httpwww.artnet.commagazinefeaturescassidycassidy1-10-4.asp  in Nature is linked to each other. The Taoists submits to the power Tao and so grows in simplicity of generosity and contentment to acquire balance in life. Taoist art is based on the basic principle of Qi, the famous herbal medicine of China. It has been described as life force, vital force, matter energy, breaths and many other expressions. Qi is simply that which makes us alive. At our death it will return to the Great Void. Yin and Yang are not substances but expression of two poles of fundamental duality that exists in nature.

Wang Chong (AD 27-97) describes that Qi produces the human body just as water becomes ice. He further elaborates that as water freezes into ice, Qi coagulates to form the human body. When ice melts, it becomes water. When a person dies, he or she becomes spirit again. It is called spirit, just as melted ice changes its name to water.

The oneness and the wholeness of nature that cannot be described in words, was later more expressed in their paintings. Eventually, it encouraged the artists to paint the essence of nature in the landscape paintings. They also painted Zodiac animals, figures, opera faces, mountains and cranes, which were a symbol for long life. These were the popular subjects for their paintings. The great Emperors and their courts was another important subject for painting.

Chinese Landscape paintings
Night-Shining White (1977), this horse has been painted by Han Gan, a leading horse painter from the Tang dynasty (618906), he was known for portraying not only the physical likeness of a horse but also its spirit.

By the 8th century the artists had also started painting animals, as Han Kan famous for painting horses. Taoism eventually gave way to the rise of the most beautiful form of Chinese art the landscape painting. Landscape literally means mountains and rivers.

Chinese art has been influenced by many religions Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, but most of all it has been influenced by Nature. They painted birds, animals, flowers, ladies, emperors and mainly landscapes and other forms of nature, because they believed that nature gave us energy, and so they had to capture the energy and feelings of nature into their painting. By the later years of tang dynasty the artists of China got a chance to escape from their worldly spaces and be able to communicate directly with nature. As the tang dynasty came towards a downfall the poets and painters found themselves more attracted towards natural world to attain peace and tranquility. The learned men found more stability and reality in the mountains and rivers as compared to the political chaos.

These men in response to political disappointments, claimed their identity as literati through calligraphy and poetry, and developed a new trend of painting that engaged calligraphic brushwork of self-expression. The monochrome imagery of old trees, rocks, and bamboo created by these artists became symbol of their spirit and character. Towering and craggy peaks were illustrated with rivers, waterfalls, streams, rocks, and trees carefully painted in radiant mineral pigments of green and blue. These paintings were usually carried out as brush drawings amid colour washes. Famous masters are Yen Li-pen, Wu Tao-tzu, Wang Wei, and Tung Yuan of the Five Dynasties. The landscape painting was further as the mind landscape which depicted both learned references to the techniques of earlier masters and, through calligraphic brushwork, the artist painted the inner spirit. More than representation, now these scholar-artists permeated their paintings with personal feelings. By inducing antique styles, they could also relate themselves to the values of the old masters. Painting was now no longer about the description of the physical world it became a means of illustrating the landscape in the artists heart and mind.

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Summer Mountains, Northern Song dynasty (9601127), 11th century, Attributed to Qu Ding (Chinese, active ca. 1023ca. 1056) Hand scroll ink and pale colour on silk.
Images of nature have stayed a powerful source of inspiration for artists up to this day. While the Chinese landscapes have deep expressions of the natural world. Upon viewing Chinese landscape paintings, it is obvious that Chinese portrayal of nature is seldom mere representations of the visible world. Rather, they are beautiful expressions of the heart and mind of the artists, keeping the essence of their masters style.

Twin Pines, Level Distance, Yuan dynasty (12791368), ca. 1300, Zhao Mengfu (Chinese, 12541322, Hand scroll ink on paper.

Chinese landscape paintings have ever since been depicted as an intimate expression of nature and as a way of expressing insightful emotions. Landscape paintings of China have always been very poetic in nature. The artist tries to depict the nature of nature in the landscape painting. So, it is not just a picture of a mountain but a combination of various spirits of nature that makes your imagination wander through the landscape. In Chinese landscape literally mean mountain and water. Almost all Chinese landscape paintings portray mountains and water, generally a river or a waterfall.
 
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The Simple Retreat, Yuan dynasty (12791368), ca. 1370, Wang Meng (Chinese, ca. 13081385) Hanging scroll ink and colour on paper.

The artist has efficiently captured the energy of the tremendous mountains and swaying trees to the humble hut. The painting has been done on a scroll taken height wise, giving the viewer an uprising feeling, a sense of involvement which takes the viewer into a journey of eternal beauty and captivating power of the Nature. Whereas the Chinese elaborate on the characteristics of Nature and its elements depicted in a painting carry some strong characters of their own.

The mountains symbolize a long life, and water is like a sea of happiness. The mountains and water in harmony together symbolize a long happy life. Mostly the Chinese landscape paintings show mist or clouds which are a sign of good fortune and happiness and are identified with the two main principles of yin and yang. Clouds and rain can also refer to sexual union, the sky and the earth, and the rain, the climax of the union.

Chinese landscape paintings for the Taoists, signify the eternal Tao, the ultimate source of energy, the reality that pervades all life. Its in these Chinese landscape paintings where the overpowering experience of the wholeness, absoluteness and one-ness of nature and soul can be felt. In prehistoric times mountains were special objects of worship that were thought to ensure cosmic order and stability, and nearly every mountain was believed to have its own mountain god.

Conclusion
The evolution of landscape painting in China helped explain and understand their religions and cultures more clearly. It was the ultimate and absolute direction for the mind and soul, because I believe that we creatures have evolved from Nature, we are part of it and it is within us. Hence, it becomes a necessity to seek guidance from nature, which can only be done if you completely surrender yourself to it, let yourself indulge and involve in it, so that it can consciously respond to your inner self. It is the food for our soul. We may only acquire it by feeding ourselves with it through our all senses. The landscape artists and poets painted the energies flowing through nature, for example the water depicts will, our drive, the activeness and in the positive direction the happiness. The earth shows stability and one which gives nourishment to mind, body and spirit. The wood or a tree denotes spring, dynamic growth and activity. Amazing poets came into the scene, the vision changed from the physical world to a spiritual, emotional, and more sensitive in thought. These Chinese landscape paintings became the favorite around the world.

The article by Brenson spoke of the different language curators use when trying to communicate to the audience the message of an art piece. A standard language only hinders in conveying the exact messages of pieces. Thus, the issue that was at hand was the language in which curators may speak and relay to the audience not only the information of the painting as well as the different probable interpretations it may convey. The article points that not only the artists struggle to make their works express what they truly want to say. The curators who are responsible in showing the works to the world are also burdened to work hard and perfect the language in order to convey meaning not only to one classification of audience and works but to various categories as well.

The article by Tim Griffin, also tackles the same theme, the need to make the art world global and and not confined within the standards of typical European art works.  The trend that is being pushed these days is having artworks understood not only within one language or culture. This is how it is in the past and now all people involved in the art world are making efforts to fix the standard that was imposed. The text further stipulates that the people with the greatest influence on this desired change are the curators. Thus, it is in the curators hands to find a way to bridge that gap that has already been established by the old process. The curators are expected to exert effort in finding ways and means to make each artwork speak as the maker wants it, not merely by the rules and standards set by the old world. They are to convey the meanings across cultures and peoples of the world.

For this assignment, I will be considering Funerary Stele of Tembu from ancient Egypt. My primary reason for this choice is because of the enjoyment I find in the art of Tembu. The reign of ancient Egypt lasted approximately 3000 years, during which time many fine works of art were created, including great architectural structures and  sculptures. The Egyptian civilization started near the river Nile, eventually the Egyptians achieved the greatest empire of the era. The great Egyptian art works include many symbolic images representative of their great kingdom. For this paper, I will discuss the  iconic Egyptian work, Funerary Stele of Tembu.

Funerary Stele of Tembu is a low relief sculpture. Stele is defined as an upright stone slab or a gravestone. (Stockstad, 36) The sculpture was discovered in Western Thebes, Egypt, created by an unknown Egyptian artist. The period during which the stele was made is estimated to be between 1500 and 1470 BC. The Stele is carved in limestone and painted with colors. (Walters Museum of Art)

The figures sculpted in this stele are realistic renderings indicative of the naturalistic style. This style was seen in many Egyptian objects, such as tables, jars, bowls and offerings. They are very much recognizable as realistic points of view. Even though the depicted movement of the human figures are not as natural,  the human figures are rendered with more naturalistic than abstract style.

The posture of the human figures shows twisted perspective, and is also indicative of Egyptian art. The legs and heads are turned sideways with upper body in frontal view, a posture that is impossible in reality. In the Funerary Stele of Tembu, the Egyptian figures are depicted with larger than normal eyes. This seems to suggest the sadness that the figures have in losing their family members.

There are two registers in the Funerary Stele of Tembu, an upper and lower. The upper register shows a girl offering goods to the household. The eyes seen in the upper most part of the stele seems to be watching or guarding the people below. Each object is carefully carved, and shows good color choices. The color seems to fade out a bit, but it is clear that the male s skin is darker than the female s. The color differences of skin depending on their gender also reflect the view of ancient Egypt people toward their gender roles. The bottom register depicts Tembu s sons and daughters holding flowers (Walters Museum of Art). In the bottom of the stele, there could be considered to be a third register depicting hieroglyphic writing of ancient Egypt.

The first time I looked at the Funerary Stele of Tembu, I immediately thought of two images that were discussed in class. First was the Narmer Palette, because of the symbolic image that both pieces have. Even though the stories that both pieces contain are different, some of the same Egyptian symbols are used in both works. One of the symbols that stood out in my mind from both Narmer Palette and the Funerary Stele of Tembu is the lotus flower, symbolizing Upper Egypt.

The eyes in the upper most part of the stele are called wedjat, or eye of Horus, King of the Earth (Stockstad, 52). The other image that was discussed in class is the Stele of Amenemhat I from Middle Kingdom. Stele of Amenemhat I was created centuries earlier than Stele of Tembu, but both steles have many identical features. According to our textbook, these funerary steles represents the deceased s use of offerings through eternity. (Stockstad, 65)

The Funerary stele of Tembu itself reveals a lot about the life of ancient Egyptians.  It depicts Egyptian family life, and the importance of devoted children to their parents. The stele includes a monkey underneath a chair in the house, suggesting Egyptians kept pets. Clothing and food choices are also revealed,  a family wearing white garments and food offerings of meat and plants.

Other images of the Funerary Stele of Tembu suggest the ancient Egyptian beliefs. The eyes of Horus as mentioned above, as well as the offering to the god Osiris signify their religion. The furniture such as the long chair, table and jars, are highly decorative and stylistic. I think the piece is less successful in bringing to light the ancient Egyptian culture than pieces made for the rulers of the time. These art pieces of rulers used the finest materials and were created by top artists, giving a glimpse of the high culture of the time. The Funerary Stele of Tembu is more successful at providing a view of middle-class ancient Egyptians, depicting ordinary lives at home.