Art

As time ages, so does Art. Art has been like a journal for humankind to reflect the different changes that human culture have undergone. In this time and age where technology has been a great vehicle that fueled a change in the life of men, it has not only impacted our way of life but our art as well. Looking back, artists have developed art that were considered as great works using only materials that were available during their time. Nowadays, artists have access to more arrays of art mediums and they have developed contemporary art forms with the aid of modern technology that are fascinating and makes us see the world in a different view.

One such works is by Char Davies who have gained technological expertise and gained prestige in the digital arts media community. One of her famous works is  Osmose  where one has to use a head-mounted display together with a vest that keeps track of balance and breathing to avoid the feeling of being disembodied usually felt when immersed in a virtual world. When one enters the world of Osmose, the immersant experiences being in a semi-transparent world of a forest with trees, ponds, and subterranean earth. The sounds that would be heared throughout is that of a female and male voice that utters phonetics as well as choral voices (Popper 2007) . The aim of Osmose is for the immersant to be in touch with the inner self and be conscious of ones own feelings to rediscover themselves. Osmoses data visualization technique is very effective because it clearly communicates the aim of the presentation through visual representation. The semi-transparency that was used and the amount of space that was explorable communicates the point of the immersion across which is introspection for the immersant. One could say that the aesthetics of the work facilitated the achievement of its function.The proper sonification techniques added to the perception and emotions of the immersant making what is viewed more vivid because of the effective aural suggestions that were heard. The use of the choral voices when an immersant chose to rise higher is an effective data sonification technique because it further highlights the rise in altitude since choral voices would usually denote heaven. In a cultural environment that is getting vey impersonal due to a changing environment, an experience like osmose is way to again reclaim self awareness and look at the world in a refreshed perspective.

Another intriguing work in the digital and interactive art world is a work by Alex Davies which he called  Dislocation . It is a mixed reality installation wherein the subject would look into portals and would then see images of other people or events happening that in truth are non-existent.  Data visualization was incorporated into the work by creating illusions and gained the aim of  illiciting human responses to reality that was only contstructed. These illusions gave the experience a disturbing effect which was one of the reactions the artist was actually aiming for. Data sonification on the other hand did not need much technical tweaks because the actual sounds were already very effective in implying that the events happening are only within the area of the viewer. Though very visually and aurally stimulating, the aim of this type of work is vague and although fascinating lacks real purpose. In fairness to the artist, he may have a support for his craft but personally speaking, his work has no distinct bearing to human life. Its relevance is limited only to those who are technically familiar to it but does not reach out to the other ordinary people.

Both the works Osmose and Dislocation have both highlighted the digital and interactive art genre. These works when judged on aesthetics and sounds are very notable and employed techniques that are very innovative and fascinating. However, the meaningful implications of both works are varied and caters different groups. Osmose being more accessible and easily comprehensible while Dislocation is quite deep and emotionally disturbing.  In terms of technique, both these presentations were carefully mapped and programmed. Considering the issues raised by other traditional artists that digital and interactive art rely on technological trickery to attract the attention of people, one cannot help but be critical on how these  art forms are created and whether the skills required to make them would define the programmer or designer as an artist by definition. At hind sight, the immediate human response would be that of awe but dissecting the processes involved would aid in how one would categorize these works. Osmose, in a personal point of view, took a real artist for it to be created. It mixed both science and art to be able to assemble a world that is a treat for the senses and a cure for the spirit. On the other hand, dislocation relied on pre-recorded scenes that were viewed in a portal. In a simpler perspective, it was like watching a movie but because of its layering with real-time events it was thus made intriguing. With the right technical facilities and location, Dislocation is easier reproduced as Osmose would be.   Despite the contrasts, both these works have contributed to the growth of the digital and interactive arts. The caliber of these works attests to the growing art genre that is digital art and growth in numbers of those engaging in it can contribute to its acceptance in the traditional art world as a serious art form.

Art is a way of arranging different elements to create something that would affect human emotions and senses. The digital and interactive arts have in more ways than one fit the definition of Art. Its proliferation because of our radically modernizing world should not be criticized but be cultivated because it is an expression of human thoughts and emotions. Art is a journal for humankind and works like Osmose and Dislocation are chapters that reflect another age in our lives.

In the Paleolithic period, all the tools used by human beings were made of stone. The tools were useful to their hunting and gathering lifestyle as agriculture was yet to develop. Paleolithic art was hence characterized by wild animal drawings and paintings that was mostly done in caves. The animals depicted in the cave art might have been a source of food, sacred or used for pre-hunting rituals since most of those caves were located in uninhabited areas. Sculptures of the animals that existed in that era were also carved.

The Neolithic period saw the introduction of metal tools to complement stone tools, human settlement into communities, agriculture development and domestication of animals. As a result, several drawings have been discovered depicting the Neolithic way of life mostly domestic animals like herds of cattle and horses. There were also increased images and sculptures of humans (mostly females). The animal incisions on rocks and sculptures in this period were sharper and had finer finishing thanks to the use of more advanced metal tools compared to the all stone tools of the Paleolithic period.

Sociology was a major factor in the differences in animal depictions between these two periods. For instance, humans in the Paleolithic period did not live in communities as a result of their hunting and gathering lifestyles which were characterized by constant movement and the lesser the number of humans in a group, the minimal the competition for food acquired. This explains the images of hunting scenes and wild animals in widely scattered and concealed caves. The social structure in the Neolithic period changed to formation of communities that inhabited villages which explains the paintings of domestic animals adjacent to human dwellings.

An artistic revolution always entails a veering away from previous norms. But this change can never be fully realized without the instigation of revolutionaries whose leadership and vision project them to the level of icons. For this paper, we will look into the works of three of these revolutionary artists heralding from the influential periods of the Age of Enlightenment and The Romantic Period and discuss how they have come to inspire the style and sensibility of these eras.

One the most influential architectures to have ever been produced by the French Enlightenment, Claude-Nicolas Ledouxs building designs served as the best examples of French Neo-Classical architecture during the height of his career in the 1770s. One of his most important works of this era were the 60 barrire that surrounded the perimeter of the French capital. The toile Customs House or the Barrire de ltoile, was one the sections of this most imposing (physically and socially) structure.

Destroyed during the French Revolution, it showed the extent of Ledouxs penchant for Classical Greek architecture and its emotional resonance (Braham 193-194). But, for this project, instead of employing the typical Doric or Ionic columns he created a new style, one that modernizes this Greek standard.

The columns were made up of alternating cubical and cylindrical parts that was unlike any the architectural world had seen before. His work was severely criticized to the point that he was called by some as a terrible architect (Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, n.d.). But, despite this he still went on with his plans. As a revolutionary, he maintained his artistic integrity by not following the norms and pursuing his own artistic vision no matter the criticisms from the community.

Ledoux, having been affiliated with the nobility, had to postpone his career else face the guillotine during the French Revolution. But, this significant incident in our history served as inspiration for a new breed of artists that would revolutionize how art is perceived. Two of these famous names are Spanish Francisco Goya and Englishman John Constable.

Though a well-regarded painter during his earlier career, it was only after the French occupation, that Goya, aggrieved by the current political situation in Spain, began to paint in dark tonalities that would be reminiscent of his later period (Voorhies, online). One of the first paintings of this period was the politically-addressed work entitled The Third of May 1808 that depicted the execution of the captured Spaniards by French troops. The paintings revolutionary qualities stems from not just the exceptional technique that ushered in a new style but also its subject and intent. It was Goyas way of opposing the current oppressive monarchy and dissolving any of his affiliations with the previous French-helmed Spanish throne (Voorhies). Aesthetically, the work defied the current conventionshis constantly playing of light and dark, the inventive compositionboiling down to Goya ushering in a new generation of artists to follow his technique.

During the English Romanticism, on the other hand, the genre of Naturalism was abound and was greatly reflected in the many landscape paintings popular during that time. It was a time when John Constable rose to fame, albeit late in his career. His most famous painting, a six-foot landscape painting named The Hay Wain that depicted the meadows and plains that surrounded his home is a perfect example of this genre (Barker, online). But what makes this particular work stand out is the play of light and dark that is pictured vividly in this painting and even more so in his latter ones. Others also regard Constable as a frontrunner to Impressionism as his paintings show the genres distinctive style that marred the difference between oil and watercolour. This painting clearly showed this aside from Constables belief in chiaroscuro or the differentiation of light and dark. On one side one can see the dark tones of the hay wain and the stables compared to the brightness of the Essex landscape further in the background. With this and his meticulousness in depicting his subjects, Constable distinguishes himself from more traditional landscape forms heralding him as one of Englands greatest landscape painters.

Michael Kimmel defines the revolutionary figure as one with the daring and vision to make change happen when present frustrations have reached its apex (Kimmel 70). These three figures define this moment when society reels for a reform propelling them from mere artists to the visionaries of their time.

Perception on Roman art suffers from a dual fallacy. Conventional views on the aesthetic and social significance of ancient Rome usually presupposes a point of view that is monolithic, literate, upper class and already well acquainted with the nuances of pagan symbolism. Equally problematic is almost the exclusive choice of imperial art as the only form of serious Roman art, ignoring the large body of domestic and casual art that also thrived and were actually more numerous at that time. Gazda agrees that there are many problems inherent in the study of Roman art as a whole, which are intensified for Roman art of the private sphere. But he also states that one of the biggest advantages of championing imperial art and ignoring private art is that official art can be studied in relation to the historical record and can be associated with specific imperial patrons and their policies (Gazda 2).

A similar exclusivity is present when it comes to art criticism. All art criticism presupposes an informed viewer. Although never clearly spelled out, this viewer, or the perception he represents is exclusively elitist. That, however, comes as no surprise because the dominant scholarly view of the present age, namely the white Euro-American view is largely a historical product of the patrician view of Roman imperialism. It is noteworthy in this context that right from the Renaissance to early Democracy to its last terrible avatar in the form of Fascist domination, genocide and ethnic cleansing, each milieu has referred to the Pax Romana, or the exclusivity of the Roman Empire, as a model. Such an attitude suffers from an inherent essentialization first, it ignores the gradual development of the Roman Empire, its expansion and consolidation over a period close to a millennium, and secondly, it considers the Roman society interchangeably with the Roman elite, ignoring the large presence of the non-elite section of the society that can be brought under the overarching umbrella of the Roman plebian.

Agreed, there are cursory mentions of the Roman plebian in mainstream chronological history, yet the elitist point of view still maintains dominance in other aspects such as the aesthetic views towards art, architecture, and even historiography itself. Plebian, it must be remembered is a rather eclectic category, that constituted the considerably larger group of independent, unprivileged, poorer and vulnerable men as well as nonpatrician large landowners, less wealthy landholders, artisans, merchants and small farmers. Although they were citizens, the plebeians did not possess the same rights as the patricians (Spielvogel 118) and that resulted in a form of civil animosity.

The Roman emperor, at least, did not take them so much for granted, and at least formally felt a need to address them through the monuments and the imperial artworks that were erected at various parts of the city. There were marked changes in the attitude of the Roman Emperors towards the plebians over the centuries, and these changes were represented in the monuments they erected in significant urban centers. They range from empathy to advice, from close association to covert threats, from suggestions to images of oppression. The way the plebian population of Rome viewed and understood these monuments were markedly different from the way the elite viewed it.

Non-Elitist Representation in the Ara Pacis of Augustus
One of the earliest monuments of the Roman age that was however, quite a revolution at its time is the beautiful Ara Pacis of Augustus. Built after his triumphal return from Egypt, it was strategically placed at the Campus Martius, an area outside the citys sacred bounderies, but bordered by the major road to the north, the via Flaminia (Clarke 22). It was in perfect astronomical and geometric symmetry with the two other major Augustan monuments of the city, the mausoleum and the sundial. Critics have found out how the shadow of the sundial pointed directly at the center of the Ara Pacis altar on September 23, the Birthday of Caesar Augustus. Other usual analyses that take up much scholarly thought of the present day related to the Ara Pacis relief are identification of the royal and priestly characters in the Royal procession on the west and south friezes, identity of the mythological and allegorical figures of the others and the general symmetry of the work in relation to the internal and the external walls of the monument.

What is often forgotten in these discussions is that the contemporary viewer did not necessarily view the monument as most present day scholars do  with a direct access to the altar and helps from photographic close-ups of the figures that can be cross checked with profiles and portraitures in contemporary coins to ascertain identities. The altar was usually closed to everyone but the priests and the Vestal maidens who were trusted with the religious duties of carrying out sacrifices and other rituals. Augustus himself preserved the right of offering the first sacrifice on particular days. However, the monument is unique in the way that the viewers can catch a glimpse of the internal carvings unlike other Roman monuments.

For most non-elites, however, the appeal of the monuments was completely different. The procession friezes were carved at considerable distance from the foot and raised on about a 12 feet platform, and from that distance it was impossible to make any difference between one member of the royalty and another all of them were more or less seen as generic representation of the Roman elite delineated through the togas and the head dresses. Augustus definitely stood out, as he was meant to stand out. A parallel between Augustus and Aeneas could also be deciphered because of the similarity in their dresses and their proximity to one another in the sacrificial friezes. What probably caught their attention more, largely due to their unusual presence as well as their relative proximity to the viewer were the children in the procession. This was the first time that children were depicted in a monumental Roman frieze.

None of the children could be identified by the plebian except that they were probably part of Augustus extended, but their approach and attitude spoke more. They look reluctant and bored and cling to the robes of their nurses or their mothers who have an expression of chiding them for their supposed misdemeanor in a royal procession. To a modern critic, it would appear as more of a kind of human interest, but for a contemporary member of the plebian it was more than that. One of the children, a girl is dressed in a toga  a dress usually reserved for boys, and two other children are in ostensibly barbarian garbs. At the outset, it would appear to a non-elite onlooker that the children of the royalty were just like his own. The childrens casual dressing, boredom, and desperate clinging to the robes of their mothers were situations that they themselves must have experienced directly a hundred times. Covert message of such representations would be to project the Emperor as one of people, to whom the power has been offered by the voters, (and the plebians did enjoy a right to vote, although they could not qualify as a senator), and thus a sympathizer of their cause. This was a political necessity for the first representative of Roman Imperial Rule.

Clarke has commented that Augustus projected his role as the leader of a democratic Republic in almost all his monuments. However, at the same time he, somewhat ironically, projected the dynastic continuance of royalty in creating the mausoleum. Clarke moreover emphasizes the significance of the intricately carved foliage vignettes and the many fantastic and real animals realistically carved at the base of the Ara Pacis. For the non-elite viewer ()  there was one attraction much more interesting than the figural reliefs. Larger by over a foot (0.35m), closer to the ground than the figural friezes, and more available to the viewers scrutiny at eye-level, was the beautifully carved and conceived decoration of the enclosure walls lower half (Clarke 26). This part of the monument is the clear work of an absolute virtuosos. It is not so much, perhaps, in the great processions of the Ara Pacis that the true significance and vitality of Augustan art reside as in its beautiful and original decorations from flower and plant life (Strong 59). It reminded many members of the plebians of the sylvan past in the Roman countryside, as the many foliages could be identified like roses etc. Rome itself hardly had any green space available except for royal mausoleums and temples.

However, even this beauty and attraction is also not without its historical rationale. This throwback to a kind of idyllic countryside can be read as one of the prominent signs of the times, with clear overtones of transition from a democratic republic to a new form of imperialism. Whereas formerly the citizen had found his happiness in and through public life, henceforward he sought it far from the Forum, in the peace of rurala life or by giving up his life to the service of a general. The task of being a citizen was replaced by the ideal of a rustic existence or of commitment or serving a dux or general (Glay 183). The plebians did not have recourse to that repose. For them, this frieze was their only closeness to a world they were physically and materially removed from. The non-elite used this to evoke that past, to help their children understand the species, each complimented no doubt with the many stories of their origins and metamorphoses that were part of the stock Roman knowledge, diligently recorded by Pliny and Ovid.

The Plebian Army in Trajans Column
Similar differences in perspective can be seen if we closely study other monuments of Rome. Little remains of the Trajan group of monuments in Rome, including the Forum and the Basilica Ulpia, although many present reconstructions give us an idea of how it may have looked and felt to walk through it in the classical times. However, the only extant complete architecture, the Trajan Column gives us a comprehensive idea of the way these iconic Trajan monuments could have communicated to the plebian group. Built about 122 years after the Ara Pacis in a much more populous Rome with a more eclectic social formation, this monument appears to address the plebian community in a different way. At the outset, a tripartite arrangement of the motifs is clear to every serious onlooker, which comprise Trajan, the Dacians and the army. They are set, more often than not, in clear hierarchy with Trajan at the top and the army at the bottom. Few Roman Emperors have their image so extensively carved as Trajan. He is ubiquitous in the carvings, everywhere from offering ritualistic sacrifice to marching with the cavalry, from receiving foreign delegates to laying out plans of strategic attacks. Two different levels of communications are immediately laid by the extensive military rhetoric of the narrative. It can easily be called a narrative because all aesthetic analyses of the column speaks in a way as if one has to read the helical structure in some order. First, it foregrounds and summarily champions military discipline. The clear delineation of the armies, often with actual names of platoons, regiments and the numbers in each, and the smooth transition and communication from top to bottom shows the necessity of discipline. Discipline is a must for success  seems to be the watchword of the construction. The expectation is clear to the civil citizens of the state  the same level of discipline is expected even in carrying out of civic duties. Trajan himself, with his life, served as a living example of a high degree of personal discipline, and that appealed to the non-elite, and provided a direct contrast to the rural escape of the Augustan age. Trajan was frugal in his meals and ostensibly free from vice, his morals, military physique and majestic comportment conforming to the plebian concept of integrity, prejudiced as it was in favor of those who recalled ancient ideals of rustic simplicity and valor (Bennet 66).

However, for the plebian community, there appears to be an appeal of a different kind. If we take a close look at the cross-section of the army scenes, we will find that most of the soldiers apart from the commanders and the strategy makers belong to non-Roman citizens. We have already seen that foreigners, slaves and freemen formed a considerable part of the Roman society. The Trajan friezes somehow emphasized their central role in the building of the Roman community, and also in some way outlined their way to freedom. For a proper understanding of that dynamic, it is important to understand the position of slavery in the Roman world.

Slaves were brought in ancient Rome from all over the Caucusian world as well as from parts of North Africa where the Empire stretched its hold. The last foreign influx was that of about 50,000 Dacians, defeated by Trajan. Slaves were appointed as teachers, instructors, merchants, artisans, and often looked after business, commerce and trade for their Roman masters. Freedom was something they could buy both for money as well as through exemplary good work in the eyes of their Roman masters. The other way to buy freedom was to serve in the army for 25 years or carry out some work of exemplary courage. At Trajans time, the Roman army comprised a lions share of legionaries, praetorians and auxiliaries, a majority of whom were foreign slaves. Most fighters in the fray were largely non-Roman, while Romans were largely legionaries building fortifications, handling provisions and moving troops. Even while operating arms, they largely handled long distance weapons like the ballista or a crossbow, with a range not less than 500 yards (Clarke 38). The auxiliaries and the symmachiarii abound in the war scenes of the Trajan column, fighting in quest of Roman citizenship.

The Trajan column shows many such army personnel turn freemen, and for many still in bondage on a visit to the square, it must have showed them a way to much cherished citizenship. Roman citizenship meant a right to vote and to carry out work even as a statesman or a priest, and that dream must have inspired many still in slavery. It may have, arguably, worked as a kind of deterrence for the royalty to check civil revolt or non-cooperation, but for the many slaves it was the pictorial laying down of a formula for success. At the same time, it also laid out the Roman way of the life as the most glorious one, thus inspiring freemen to give up their barbaric way of life even after gaining freedom. It held promise if not for them, at least for their offspring. Despite various other nuances in the representation of the friezes, this can show us how perception may vary from one socio-economic position to another, and how meaning can take a different form in each case.

The same pattern can be seen running even for other Roman monuments, particularly for the imperial structures of Marcus Aurelius and others in a different time and age. Thus, we can come to the conclusion that he elite and the non-elite of Rome had largely different ways of perceiving and analyzing imperial art. The plebian fascination with this form of official art, for reasons completely unique as compared to the patrician perception, became represented in much of the non-official art of Rome, which is beyond the scope of the present paper. However, at least we can come to the conclusion that the elitist analysis is not the only one, and an art can be perceived in as many ways as there are perceivers.

Chess is a game widely played everywhere schools, parks, and even over the Internet.  The game continues to be one of popular hobbies of both the old generation and young generation.  The challenge and excitement make up the fun aspect of chess especially when players think their moves thoroughly.  Each move of the chess pieces critically spells either victory or defeat between the players.

Players of chess often find several reasons why they love to play the game.  First is the aspect of convenience.  Chess is fairly easy to play just about anywhere.  For a few dollars, you can purchase a mini-chess set that fits your pocket.  You also have an option to play chess online against one of the many computer programs found in the market.  Next is that chess is a fair game.  The absence of dice allows a good play without the possibility of a bad roll that ruin your turn.  All it matters is how excellent you play.  Third, chess can be learned how to play as good as anybody else.  Additionally, chess can be played no matter how young or old you and how petite or tall you are.  Lastly, chess is an intellectually exciting game.  You wont be bored with the game when there is more strategy to learn how to play better.  Thus, it enables players to think more analytically resulting to an improved concentration and development of memory.  In fact, numerous studies, such as by Riefner (1992), have proven that children achieved a higher reading level, math level and a greater learning ability as a consequence of playing chess.

Modern American Art - Paul Strand
1. About the Artist Paul Strand
October 16, 1890 was the day when famous photographer Paul Strand came in this world. He was born in the house of Bohemian parents, who immigrants from Bohemia to USA, at the New York City. Kodak Brownie Camera, which he got in 1902, brought his interest in the photography. After two years of this at the Ethical Culture School, he started learning photography from a well-known photographer Lewis Hine. In 1907, Strand met Stieglitz and Edward Steichen during his class visit of art gallery at 291 Fifth Avenue. In this visit Stieglitz got impressed by Strand and later he promoted Strands work from his 291 art gallery. After the Europe trip of 1911, Strand had established himself as a freelance photographer in the New York City. His early work was mainly related with formal abstractions and social reform. Art Gallery 291 helped him to expose his work to Picasso, Cezanne, Braque, and Matisse. Simple architecture themes and household things had been dramatically framed by Strand to build up a sequence of near abstract works.

1. Portrait work of Strand is a collection of close-up portraits of unknown persons whom he met on the street. He expressed his observations about social class with the help of his work. Strand and some other people founded an association of photographers, which was known as Photo League, to promote social and political causes through their art. After this, between 1920s and 1930s, Strand performed his work on some different subjects like machines and organic. Eventually Strand chose some other subjects such as environment and man for his photography. But it was not the end of his journey as photographer. Later, Strand gave a new direction to his career and became a cinema photographer. He worked as a cinema photographer in several films. Strands interest in photographic book brought him again towards photography.

2. About Strands Work
Strand started his career as a photographer after the visit of 291 gallery of Stieglitz. Now photography was just not only a hobby for Strand and he gave a new height to the art of photography. He was an active member of the Camera Club, which was in the New York, for a short period of time. But he used the darkrooms of this Camera Club for more than 20 years. Work, which was done by the Strand, had been exhibited at 291 art gallery, the Modem Gallery, and the Camera Club. He won prizes for his work at the Wanamaker Photography exhibitions.

 Fifth Avenue, which is one of the famous photographs taken by the Strand, has been releasd in 1915 at New York. His work became a fundamental and basic for the modernist photographers in the United States as well as in Europe.

3. Strand photographed machine, urban sites and nature during the mean period of his career and during this period 8 x 10  5 x 7 inch view cameras and platinum paper had been used by him for his work. Photography and the New God, which was written by strand set a base for the photographers. He told about the capabilities of the large-format camera with sharp lens. He came to know about X-ray and other medical camera procedures during his services in the Army Medical Corps.4 After this, his work Manhatta released in 1921 as New York the Magnificent. It was his first movie. Later, An Akeley movie camera had been purchased by Strand and he stated working as a freelance cinematographer. During this time his famous photograph Lathe was released in 1923 in the New York. He did work as a news maker and the maker of short features at the West Coast. He made some documentary films which were sponsored by the government such as Redes or The Wave and he also gave contribution in pro-labor and anti-Fascist movies. His most motivated production Native Land was released during the Second World War. He also wrote some articles in which he integrated image and text. Many famous works has been created by Strand such as lathe, Manhatta, Native Land, The Wave, Fifth Avenue, Chair Abstraction, Blind Woman, Wall Street and many more. Now we will focus Strands three famous art works Manhatta, Chair Abstraction and Blind Woman out of these.

3. Manhatta
In 1921, after providing services in Army Medical Corps, Strand with Charles Sheeler (a painter and photographer) produced his first film Manhatta under the banner of motion pictures. It is also known as New York the Magnificent. The total duration of this documentary is 11 min and it is a black  white film. In 1995, this documentary won an award National Film Registry. Manhatta is a silent film and in this film daily life of the people of the New York has been shown. Each part of this movie had been framed perfectly by Strand and a shot similar to his famous Wall Street had been included in Manhatta. Title for this movie had been taken from Whitmans poem Manahatta. In this movie strand tried to show that the strength of the New York City in not only because of its people, but it is also because of the structure of this city. Strand captured the power and beauty of the New York in this movie wonderfully. Strand played two roles in the making of this movie role of director and role of Cinematographer.

Manhatta is an innovative work of the Americs experimental cinema by Paul Strand and it is a thoughtful series of scenes. It is much closer to painting than a film because there are total 65 shots in this film and it moves gradually  step by step from morning to night like a day. In this film mass of the workers had been shown near shipyards and bridges. Most remarkable objects of this film are photos and painting of grand towers and bottomless valleys of the New York City. This film is a good example of nature photography. Manhatta was not completely unique film of that time, but it was the first avant-garde film which was produced in the USA. It is some what similar to New York, Broadway at Union Square, and Fifth Avenue. But the main difference in the New York street scene Manhatta was that actual life of the New York had been recorded in the 19th century films and they were made generally for documentary purpose. On the other side aesthetic of the image was the main concern for Strand. Strand tried to expose the feeling of urban life with his camera in Manhatta. In this film the people of the New York had been represented in the form of crowd. Robert Hughes commented on this film that Despite the lines from Whitmans poems, Manhatta is not really Whitmanesque in feeling. Strands Manhatta is a clear and abstract film, which became a learning point for many artist of American Cinema. A 35mm movie camera, which was made in France, had been used in this film. Only a handful of prints of this film were made and after some time original negative got disappeared. At that time a nitrate 35mm projection print was the only last print and then this film had been digitally restored from this print. Lots of difficulties came into the way of restoring the film, but finally film had been restored.

4. Chair Abstraction
Chair Abstraction is also another work of the Paul Strand. He did this work during his breakthrough period. Strand took this photograph at his familys country house at Twin Lakes. During this time he took simple abstract images of household objects from fundamental points of view. He did not use darkroom for this work. He did this only with the help of his camera. His keen observation and deterministic power helped him to take everyday architecture photographs in the modern photographic world. He tilted cameras view finder by 45 degree. Pattern of the chairs spindles had been forced into the upper third of the frame.

Chair Abstraction (Referred from amica.davidrumsey.com)

This photograph tells about the talent of the Strand. Each line of the photograph is clear.  The light which is being reflected by the chair is not creating effect on the clarity of the photograph. Angle of the camera is perfect with full use of the available recourses. Light-sensitive materials had been used in this photograph by the Strand, which shows his awareness about the science.

5. Lathe Machine
In 1923 after purchasing Akeley camera Strand took some photographs of machines and buildings. Lathe is one of them, which was taken at Akeley Machine Shop in the New York. Gelatin silver print had been used in this photograph by Strand.  There is a title, sign and date on this photograph. Original size of this picture was 9 x 7 inch or we can say 24.1 x 19.1cm.

Lathe (Referred from httpfaculty.dwc.eduwellmanSrand-Lathe3.htm)
It is the one of the most famous photographs of the strand. This photograph creates interest about the structure and a want to identify the foundation of a substance. This photograph had been presented with strong and fixed scientific detail. This photograph reveals crucial characteristics about object. It tells about the technology which was dominating all industrialized societies. This photograph brought the idea of marketing products by capturing good images of the products.

6. Conclusion
Now it could be said that for Strand photography was not just a hobby it was more than an aesthetic pursuit. His thinking was that photography could be used as a inflective tool in the modern world. His knowledge about photography was awesome and he did a great hard work to reach at the heights of the photography. His work tells about the political and social changes. His photos points towards the strength of the New York City. He gave his contribution not only in the United States of America, but he also did work in some European country. His work was famous in the United States as well as in the most of the countries of the world. Lines and shapes were clear in his phonographs. He knew the thing that how to make a photograph interesting and memorable. The use of the science in the materials of photography and the use of the mathematics in the angles of the camera tells about his knowledge. Thats why simple photographs of household objects such as a chair, photographs of a blind woman, and photographs of buildings, which were taken by him, are world famous today. Finally, we can say that he was a great photographer and he gave a new direction to the photography in the America.

The styles that emerged during the Bauhaus movement have had an immense impact on culture and art the world over. Numerous aspects in the modern environment employ one or more of the styles established during the Bauhaus movement especially in areas such as furniture, weaving, architecture and typography (Stokstad, 1999). For instance, Bauhaus artist teachers like Feininger, Kandinsky and Klee are noted top have contributed immensely to painting in the whole of 20th century. Bauhaus was founded in 1919 in German by Walter Gropius as an arts and crafts institute. By extension, Bauhaus refers to an artistic movement that is mainly based on design and architecture as well as dance, photography and costumes. However, the Bauhaus movement was adversely affected by the advances of Nazism in 1933. Gropius had a great interest for bauhutten which he sought to resurrect through the Bauhaus movement. The major emphasis of Bauhaus was on a cultural synthesis whose core objective was to unite the works of artists, architects and designers.

A number of persistently evolving styles in Europe in the early 20th century were a great inspiration to the Bauhaus movement. These styles were established through movements such as expressionism, cubism and constructivism and many others. These new art forms had never been experienced before even though the traditional forms of art still remained essential. The modernist movement contained the parenting period for most of these new styles and attitudes which were a great inspiration to the establishment of the Bauhaus movement (Arnason  Prather, 1998). This is because like Bauhaus, the modernist period (1880 to 1970) was characterized by numerous radical and rapid innovations in arts, painting and architectural styles. The new artistic movements and attitudes influenced the unification of art during the Bauhaus movement.

Expressionism and formalism are attributed to have inspired the Bauhaus movement socially through art. The formalists felt that modernism art styles were rather confusing and thus sought order and simplicity through formal arrangements in forms, colors and shapes as regard to art. Since Bauhaus movement reflected a new stage in artistic and architectural styles. Expressionism on the other hand encompassed manipulating the representational or formal art elements to relay intense feelings (Yakimovich, 2000). Both expressionalism and formalism artists held the view that art could offer solutions to the basic problems of the modernism movement. Formalism and expressionalism further the modernism idea that conceptually and stylistically progressive art would be a useful element of social change. These attributes were an inspiration to most of the artists who played a key role in the formation of the Bauhaus movement.

Modernism relied a lot on the expressionism movement which was inspired by the works of five major artists and hence five different styles that came about between 1880 and 1920. These artists constituted of Paul Cezanne, Henri de Tolulouse-Lautec, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat and Vincent van Gogh (1848-1903). For instance, Seurat and Guagin established a new style referred to as the avant-garde and also came up with the ideology of using art for social change. This was very important to the formation of the Bauhaus movement as it heavily incorporated the aspects of avant-garde (Stokstad, 1999). Cezanne on the other hand incorporates use of paintings that reflected an overall effect, an idea that was the basis for the Bauhaus movement. The work of various other artists also had an immense impact through their work that represented a shift to a new era of representing art in different styles.
The Cubism movement played a paramount role in the formation of the Bauhaus movement. This is because it led to a tremendous change in the manner in which painting was done. With cubism, the traditional three-dimensional representation in painting was defied with cubists resolving to redefine reality in a new and different style. Of importance to cubism were Pablo Picasso and George Braque (1882-1963). In the early 20th century, Les Demoiselles Avingon by Picasso was perhaps the most compelling painting which according to Stokstad (1999), shattered every pictorial and iconographical convection that preceded it. Cubism was an extension of the expressionist art and also was a bridge to a new style of painting that became very vital in the formation of the Bauhaus movement as it broke the perspectives of the past. Picasso and Braque also contributed greatly to the Bauhaus architecture such as through the House on the Hill (Arnason  Prather, 1998). In years that followed, cubism contributed immensely towards the establishment of Bauhaus movement through various perspectives such as the analytic cubism and synthetic cubism. Response to cubism such as the Italian Futurism, Superism and Rayonism established new forms of multi-dimensional styles which Bauhaus artist borrowed from greatly. Dada, a metaphysical school, inspired the irrational and intuitive expression that was a great inspiration to the Bauhaus artists (Yakimovich, 2000). Dadaism (1915) gave way for imaginative artistic movements such as the Bauhaus. Dadaists and expressionists artists of whom Gropius was one established the November Group which had an immense contribution to the Workers Council for Art which was a foundation for the Bauhaus movement.                                                                            
The impacts of the First World War such as inflation and poverty exacted a renewed consciousness which had a tremendous influence on architecture, design and art. In the midst of these influences, the Bauhaus movement developed as a reaction to the changes in the social arena which inspired an aesthetic relevance (Stokstad, 1999). There had been a conflict in Germany in 1914 which featured substantial support of the middle class on all sides. This conflict resulted into a great hatred for the perpetrators of the conflict and a revolt by the German soldiers against their bosses. These events served as the basis for the foundation of the Bauhaus movement since most of the movements students and artists were war veterans. For in stance, Gropius fought on the western front during the conflict.

The 1917s Russian revolution became an inspiration for a far reaching enthusiasm in revolutionary politics and most importantly in social experiments in Germany and other places. A successful Marxist-led revolutionary experiment exacted an intense interest in social experiments which inspired new experiments in artistic, painting and architectural works and this became the foundation of the Bauhaus movement. In a support to the Marxist language, Gropius said, Let us create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions that raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist (Arnason  Prather, 1998). Gropius and other Bauhaus artists established the Bauhaus movement under the inspiration of the Marxist revolution. Thus is because the founding philosophy of Bauhaus promised solutions to the more similar problems as the ones that had inspired the Marxist philosophy. The very first adherents of the Bauhaus movements were largely focused on an arts and craft tradition which drew a lot of inspiration from the earlier utopian socialism.    
             
In 1918 the German revolution took place following the discretion of the German Kaiser and the transformation of the German empire into the German republic. Shortly after, power passed over to the soldiers councils and grassroots workers through out the country and hence led to the consolidation of power on the centrist Social Democratic Party. The most important aspect of the workers movement was the enormous influence exacted through artists (Yakimovich, 2000). For instance, Gropius headed the Working Council on the Arts, an architect led council in 1919 which authored the Appeal to the Artists of All Countries. The aftermath of the revolution thus inspired to a great extent the advances of the Working Council of the Arts which played a central role in the establishment of the Bauhaus movement through Gropius.

Between 1918 and 1919, the civil war between the socialist based left and the still-monarchist right led to a radical agitation which caused the collapse of the SDP and the seizure of power by the Freikorps. Frequent upheavals in Berlin in 1919 saw the complete ruin of the left workers movement. The rise of the still-monarchist right of which most of the Bauhaus artists fought at the western wing inspired a transformation of artistic styles through the influence of Gropius and his students (Stokstad, 1999). Gropius involvement in the still-monarchist affairs prompted a political will that facilitated for the establishment of the Bauhaus movement. It is indisputable that the formation of the Bauhaus movement was inspired by aspects from all corners of life.