Art

The styles that emerged during the Bauhaus movement have had an immense impact on culture and art the world over. Numerous aspects in the modern environment employ one or more of the styles established during the Bauhaus movement especially in areas such as furniture, weaving, architecture and typography (Stokstad, 1999). For instance, Bauhaus artist teachers like Feininger, Kandinsky and Klee are noted top have contributed immensely to painting in the whole of 20th century. Bauhaus was founded in 1919 in German by Walter Gropius as an arts and crafts institute. By extension, Bauhaus refers to an artistic movement that is mainly based on design and architecture as well as dance, photography and costumes. However, the Bauhaus movement was adversely affected by the advances of Nazism in 1933. Gropius had a great interest for bauhutten which he sought to resurrect through the Bauhaus movement. The major emphasis of Bauhaus was on a cultural synthesis whose core objective was to unite the works of artists, architects and designers.

A number of persistently evolving styles in Europe in the early 20th century were a great inspiration to the Bauhaus movement. These styles were established through movements such as expressionism, cubism and constructivism and many others. These new art forms had never been experienced before even though the traditional forms of art still remained essential. The modernist movement contained the parenting period for most of these new styles and attitudes which were a great inspiration to the establishment of the Bauhaus movement (Arnason  Prather, 1998). This is because like Bauhaus, the modernist period (1880 to 1970) was characterized by numerous radical and rapid innovations in arts, painting and architectural styles. The new artistic movements and attitudes influenced the unification of art during the Bauhaus movement.

Expressionism and formalism are attributed to have inspired the Bauhaus movement socially through art. The formalists felt that modernism art styles were rather confusing and thus sought order and simplicity through formal arrangements in forms, colors and shapes as regard to art. Since Bauhaus movement reflected a new stage in artistic and architectural styles. Expressionism on the other hand encompassed manipulating the representational or formal art elements to relay intense feelings (Yakimovich, 2000). Both expressionalism and formalism artists held the view that art could offer solutions to the basic problems of the modernism movement. Formalism and expressionalism further the modernism idea that conceptually and stylistically progressive art would be a useful element of social change. These attributes were an inspiration to most of the artists who played a key role in the formation of the Bauhaus movement.

Modernism relied a lot on the expressionism movement which was inspired by the works of five major artists and hence five different styles that came about between 1880 and 1920. These artists constituted of Paul Cezanne, Henri de Tolulouse-Lautec, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat and Vincent van Gogh (1848-1903). For instance, Seurat and Guagin established a new style referred to as the avant-garde and also came up with the ideology of using art for social change. This was very important to the formation of the Bauhaus movement as it heavily incorporated the aspects of avant-garde (Stokstad, 1999). Cezanne on the other hand incorporates use of paintings that reflected an overall effect, an idea that was the basis for the Bauhaus movement. The work of various other artists also had an immense impact through their work that represented a shift to a new era of representing art in different styles.
The Cubism movement played a paramount role in the formation of the Bauhaus movement. This is because it led to a tremendous change in the manner in which painting was done. With cubism, the traditional three-dimensional representation in painting was defied with cubists resolving to redefine reality in a new and different style. Of importance to cubism were Pablo Picasso and George Braque (1882-1963). In the early 20th century, Les Demoiselles Avingon by Picasso was perhaps the most compelling painting which according to Stokstad (1999), shattered every pictorial and iconographical convection that preceded it. Cubism was an extension of the expressionist art and also was a bridge to a new style of painting that became very vital in the formation of the Bauhaus movement as it broke the perspectives of the past. Picasso and Braque also contributed greatly to the Bauhaus architecture such as through the House on the Hill (Arnason  Prather, 1998). In years that followed, cubism contributed immensely towards the establishment of Bauhaus movement through various perspectives such as the analytic cubism and synthetic cubism. Response to cubism such as the Italian Futurism, Superism and Rayonism established new forms of multi-dimensional styles which Bauhaus artist borrowed from greatly. Dada, a metaphysical school, inspired the irrational and intuitive expression that was a great inspiration to the Bauhaus artists (Yakimovich, 2000). Dadaism (1915) gave way for imaginative artistic movements such as the Bauhaus. Dadaists and expressionists artists of whom Gropius was one established the November Group which had an immense contribution to the Workers Council for Art which was a foundation for the Bauhaus movement.                                                                            
The impacts of the First World War such as inflation and poverty exacted a renewed consciousness which had a tremendous influence on architecture, design and art. In the midst of these influences, the Bauhaus movement developed as a reaction to the changes in the social arena which inspired an aesthetic relevance (Stokstad, 1999). There had been a conflict in Germany in 1914 which featured substantial support of the middle class on all sides. This conflict resulted into a great hatred for the perpetrators of the conflict and a revolt by the German soldiers against their bosses. These events served as the basis for the foundation of the Bauhaus movement since most of the movements students and artists were war veterans. For in stance, Gropius fought on the western front during the conflict.

The 1917s Russian revolution became an inspiration for a far reaching enthusiasm in revolutionary politics and most importantly in social experiments in Germany and other places. A successful Marxist-led revolutionary experiment exacted an intense interest in social experiments which inspired new experiments in artistic, painting and architectural works and this became the foundation of the Bauhaus movement. In a support to the Marxist language, Gropius said, Let us create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions that raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist (Arnason  Prather, 1998). Gropius and other Bauhaus artists established the Bauhaus movement under the inspiration of the Marxist revolution. Thus is because the founding philosophy of Bauhaus promised solutions to the more similar problems as the ones that had inspired the Marxist philosophy. The very first adherents of the Bauhaus movements were largely focused on an arts and craft tradition which drew a lot of inspiration from the earlier utopian socialism.    
             
In 1918 the German revolution took place following the discretion of the German Kaiser and the transformation of the German empire into the German republic. Shortly after, power passed over to the soldiers councils and grassroots workers through out the country and hence led to the consolidation of power on the centrist Social Democratic Party. The most important aspect of the workers movement was the enormous influence exacted through artists (Yakimovich, 2000). For instance, Gropius headed the Working Council on the Arts, an architect led council in 1919 which authored the Appeal to the Artists of All Countries. The aftermath of the revolution thus inspired to a great extent the advances of the Working Council of the Arts which played a central role in the establishment of the Bauhaus movement through Gropius.

Between 1918 and 1919, the civil war between the socialist based left and the still-monarchist right led to a radical agitation which caused the collapse of the SDP and the seizure of power by the Freikorps. Frequent upheavals in Berlin in 1919 saw the complete ruin of the left workers movement. The rise of the still-monarchist right of which most of the Bauhaus artists fought at the western wing inspired a transformation of artistic styles through the influence of Gropius and his students (Stokstad, 1999). Gropius involvement in the still-monarchist affairs prompted a political will that facilitated for the establishment of the Bauhaus movement. It is indisputable that the formation of the Bauhaus movement was inspired by aspects from all corners of life.

Anna Hamiltons Myein is more than simply artistic representation of imagination. Like most of her works, it corresponds to a text, an event or some similar background. The Myein explores different modes of perception of a displaced object or event and how it induces incoherence and thus is self defeating. It portrays paradoxes within our history and in Hamiltons own words it depicts contradictions (Coffey, 2001). Therefore, the Myein, bleeding from the interior owing to these paradoxes, depicts the circumstances that led to this inner state from its exterior.

Ann Hamilton thus, brings forth the contradictions in our history and questions the development of so called civilized value systems and institutions, such as democracy and liberty that evolved from very different, rather contradicting scenarios such as slavery etc.

It is perhaps simplest to relate Myein to my life experiences as it points out towards some of my own hypocrisies and contradictions between my actions and the values I not only uphold but also instruct. It is particularly relevant in the times when I am complying to certain social norms or actions that I do not completely agree to and therefore can feel the stress upon my inner self.

Ann Hamiltons work is very much comparable to that of Anne Carson, renowned Canadian poet and essayist who tried fictionalizing various Greek mythologies and bringing forth the contradictions that existed therein. She even inspired Hamilton in some of her works as Hamilton relies heavily on research and study before recreating history in artistic terms.

Myein can be interpreted as more than a mere representation of history in open spaces. Its dreamy exterior can also be seen as opposing rather than reciprocating the interior. For me, it is much similar to an individual who pretends to be blissful and content though his life is full of all sorts of stresses making him bleed from the inside.

Sandy Skoglund  Hangers
Sandy Skoglund uses the medium of photography to reproduce and recreate surrealistic images in real life. Her work is defined as depicting scenarios that are either dreamy or completely out of place therefore inspiring awe in the viewers. Hangers is yet another depiction of her bizarre world. It shows a room with yellow walls and pink floor covered throughout with blue hangers, while a man enters the room in a yellow night gown.

The picture depicts a dream like scenario which could not be conceived in sane reality however, it is much more than what meets the eye. Skoglunds art is more about arousing certain responses within the subconscious by unsettling the individual who has entered her bizarre world. This unsettling may come about in the form of shock or amazement followed by an acute discomfort.

One of the most compelling responses Hangers induces in its viewer is related to cognitive dissonance. The picture with its bizarreness triggers a mixed response based on confusion, excitement and discomfort. This is very much similar to what I would experience when smoking as on one end, It induces guilt and on the other it excites and leads to mild pleasure eventually, leaving me confused and stressed on my choice of becoming a smoker.

Similar awry scenarios are depicted in the works of various artists however Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland is a very accurate depiction of Hangers as both worlds seem out of place, perhaps dreamy and surrealistic.

This particular scenario however, can be reconciled with other interpretations as well. Very much different from the artists own interpretation, the room itself may serve as the subconscious of an individual and the hangers show an obsession with some object, especially one of a sexual nature. The subconscious thus, is preoccupied with the individuals sexual obsessions and needs to be released

Rene Magritte  The Lovers
The Lovers, perhaps in the literal sense, is a revisit to Magrittes past traumas and how images of the body of her drowned mother come to affect his perceptions. But the literal is merely an idea conceived through experience, being projected as something much more complex. In The Lovers, Magritte does not provide the meaning and leaves it to the observer to interpret. The wrapped cloth though, presents the only mystery and that is what Magritte intends to do provoke the observers subconscious to draw meanings based upon its own experiences. He deeply regrets the encroachment of rationality in the arts and its value as justification of an artists work as for him, art does not require explicit meaning - it is best left to ones imagination.

The most predominant interpretation as hinted by the artist is that love is blind. Picking up from that, love is not a physical connection but an emotional one. I too experienced that when I developed strong feelings for someone who was much older than me and considering other obvious differences, there seemed no rational explanation for my feelings in the context.

Similarities exist in the work of Lyonel Feininger as he did not believe in the functionality or rationality of art either and left his work open to interpretation. Gaberndorf II is perhaps one of his most prominent works

As my own personal interpretation, The Lovers is portrayal of a sadness that will take over the individual eventually. The pieces of cloth wrapping the faces do not depict blindness of any sort, but links the lovers relationship to the artists own sorrow and trauma that he experienced when he lost his mother. Thus, love eventually leads to sorrow and grief, be it through the loss of ones lover or the conclusion of a relationship.

 Rene Magritte  The Therapist
One of the works that most inspired me was The Therapist by Rene Magritte. What Magritte is trying to depict in this art work, remains unclear and ambiguous, like his other surrealist creations and perhaps that is the beauty of this portrait. It is so explicit and vivid yet unclear in its meaning. In the words of Magritte himself If one looks at a thing with the intention of trying to discover what it means, one ends up no longer seeing the thing itself, but of thinking of the question that is raised. (Keresztes, 2007) In the therapist, Magritte assembles objects from daily life in a vivid manner though still, no definite or explicit relations could be made.

How I bestow meaning to this work solely depends on my interpretation of it. I chose to interpret is as a parent who is cruel, subjugating and unkind toward its siblings one who imposes his will upon them and obstructs their process of intellectual growth.

This work though surrealist in nature, but owing to its openness to interpretation, may be regarded somewhat closer to postmodernist art. Taking the lead from Anthony Giddens, it takes meaning according to the imagination of its interpreter.

A number of other interpretations could be made out of The Therapist owing to the ambiguity of the subject and the setting portrayed. The interpretation that I make here relates the work to Platos Allegory of the Cave.  As seen in the portrait, the birds within the cage depict souls yet to be enlightened of the different forms of wisdom. Their vision is hindered by the veil that causes darkness and prevents them to see all around their cages. Instead, their sight is limited to only one side which remains open.

Different periods in history are characterized and distinguished from each other by significant developments in terms of their intellectual, political, economic, social, and artistic underpinnings. These underpinnings enable the division of the different art forms within the artworld either through the emphasis on the historical interpretation or stylistic interpretation of an artwork. The rationale behind the former lies in the effect of the social and political conditions of a period in the formation of an artwork (Beardsley 128).  The later, on the other hand, is based on the assumption that the formal structures determine the classification of art forms (Beardsley 128). Hence, changes in the socio-political conditions in a period lead to the changes in the predominant art form. In line with this, the following discussion expounds on the argument that the distinctions in the artworks throughout history are primarily caused by their stylistic differences as can be seen in their representation of the same subject in their works. This is another way of stating that artworks merely differ in terms of their intrinsic characteristics since their extrinsic characteristics are always determined by the meanings associated to the subjects depicted in their works during the period of their creation. This is apparent in the utilization and depiction of the female image in the San Vitale mosaic, Empress Theodora and Attendants and Eycks Arnolfini Wedding Portrait.

 The mosaic, Empress Theodora and Attendants (Refer to Fig. 1), portrays Emperor Justinians attempt to utilize art as a tool for imperial unification. Created during the early Byzantine period, which ranged from 527 A.D. to 726 A.D., it represented the union between the rule of the state and the church which is evident not only in the location of the work, that being the San Vitale Church, but also in the inclusion of Christian symbolic images in the mosaic, that being the chalice in Theodoras hand (Gardner, Kleiner, and Mamiya 247-248). The interesting aspect in the mosaic lies in its representation of a female imperial figure that is depicted as a sovereign who has direct power over both the state and the church. As Mclanan argues, although the emperor and the empress were pivotal personas in the Byzantine Empire, there are very few instances where in the image of the empress is included to represent the imperial power over the land (1-3). Theodoras mosaic is more controversial since it also depicts her as a member of the liturgical procession, a position which was only reserved for the Emperor during that time (Standley 164-165). The evidence of her inclusion in the liturgical procession is not only apparent in the chalice in her hand but also in the inclusion of the three Magi in the lower part of her robe (Standley 172). These two objects in her portrait signifies not only her role in the liturgical process, that being the bearer of the primary gifts, but also her role in the empire. It is important to note that her portrait is found on the opposite side of Justinians portrait (Refer to Fig. 2) which signifies their matrimonial rule over the empire. Standley however claims that a comparison of both individuals portrayal in their respective portraits manifests an emphasis on Theodoras power in comparison to her husband (172). He states, When one compares the panelsshe is taller than anyone else in her retinuehoweverJustinianis the same height as the other protagonists in it (Standley 172). This manifests that Theodora wielded greater power over her husband.

Fig. 1
Empress Theodora and Attendants

Fig.2
Justinian and Attendants
The abovementioned depiction of the female figure however does not necessarily imply that the Byzantine period allowed all women to occupy an equal footing with their male counterparts in society. As Mclanan claims, Empresses most distinctive attributewas the fact of their imperial, not their feminine, identity The prominence of women underscores aristocratic or imperial power as against the power of the people in the ancient Greek tradition (3). This shows that representations of women in Byzantine art only allowed the equality of men and women within the members of the aristocratic class. As opposed to this, later paintings, specifically those produced in the Renaissance period did not even enable the equal portrayal of both men and women for even those who belonged to the upper class of society as can be seen in Eycks Arnolfini Wedding Portrait (Refer to Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
Jan Van Eycks Arnolfini Wedding Portrait
Eycks work above was produced during the 15th century, the period of the Renaissance movement which was characterized not only by its emphasis on humanism but also its emphasis on symbolism (Gardner, Kleiner, and Mamiya 403). In comparison to the artists during the Byzantine period who utilized various metals, enamels, and precious stones in the creation of their mosaics, artists during the Renaissance period used paint enamels mixed with oil and other substances in their canvasses (Gardner, Klein, and Mamiya 457). Furthermore, artists during the period focused on depicting three-dimensional images as realistically as possible in a two-dimensional frame by utilizing the one-point or two-point perspective (Gardner, Kleiner, and Mamiya 458). In the case of the Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, its focus on humanism is apparent in the subject of the portrait, that being the marriage ceremony between an extremely wealthy Florentine banker and the daughter of a rich Flemish family (Lewis and Lewis 293). The portrait utilizes symbols that instruct the viewer on the domestic relations enabled by a marriage during the period. An example of this can be seen in the chandelier behind the couple which symbolizes their wealth. The optical illusion created by the chandeliers position behind the couple seems to position it on top of the couples outstretched hands which signifies that their union also involves the union of their families wealth. The portrait, in this sense, presents a visual marriage contract between Arnolfini and his wife. In this contract, the woman is owned by the man. Within the portrait, this is evident as Arnolfini looks straight ahead whereas his wife looks at Arnolfini with her head bowed down suggesting her compliance to Arnolfinis power and role within the family.

Within this context, it is apparent that one of the primary distinctions between the art works produced during the Byzantine period and the Renaissance period lies in their depiction of the female figure within their works. This is another way of stating that although the female figure remains a subject of art throughout the ages, the depiction of her image varies in line with the predominant belief during the time of a works production. In the case of Empress Theodora and Attendant, this is evident as it is possible to portray a female figure in power given that she is a part of the aristocracy. Eycks portrait however shows that, during the Renaissance, even membership in the upper-class prevents a female from being depicted with an equal footing with her male counterpart. This merely shows that the distinction in the artworks from the Byzantine to the Renaissance period does not merely lie in the materials or style used in a portrait. They also lie in the manner in which these materials are utilized to forward a specific social belief. Although both works are similar as they represent the female figure, they vary in terms of their representation of her figure.

The Stele of Naram-Sin and the Stele of Hammurabi

Generally, the two steles are representative of the imperial art of the Mesopotamian civilization. Much like most steles, these two slabs showcase major events or circumstances from their specific eras the Stele of Naram-Sin showing the victory of King Naram-Sin of the Akkadian Dynasty over the mountain people, Lullubi, while the Stele of Hammurabi illustrates the bestowment of judicial power of King Hammurabi of Babylon by the god Shamash. Both also follow a specific style that deviates from earlier stele traditions wherein a main focus is established. But the similarities end there. The steles are made from different materials the first, from pink limestone, and the other, from dark, gray basalt. As for their function, we know that the Stele of Hammurabi contains one of the oldest legal documentation in antiquity, The Hammurabi Code, which details the judicial process of the Mesopotamian Empire. It serves as a form of legal compendium while the the Stele of Naram-Sin on the other hand, serves merely as a celebratory emblem of Naram-Sins victory, showcasing his power as king. In this light, Naram-Sin is shown in the middle of the sculpture, considered a god with the success of his victory. The Stele of Hammurabi, though, shows the King receiving his investiture from the god Shamash, illustrating the role of the King as emissary to the gods instead of a god-like king.

Hagia Sofia, Istanbul and Mosque of Sultan Selim, Edirne

Though historically, the Hagi Sofia came in earlier and as a testament to Roman Catholic faither, whereas the Mosque of Sultan Selim served as a Muslim place of religion all throughout the course of its history, there can be no denying the similarities of the two architectural marvels. Both follow a classical Byzantine style that incorporates the formation of a dome-shaped main hall and the use of spires (four in each). There is a prominent use of arches in the interior for structural support as well as architectural design. What differs between the two are the distinct use of wall treatments. The walls of the Hagia Sofia are famously filled with mosaics detailing early Christian beliefs. Done in bright colors and adorned with gold leaf, these mosaics pertain to the iconography that is prevalent during the Byzantine period. On the other hand, focus was placed on the architectural quality of the mosque, with the interior walls of the Mosque painted only in red to showcase the distinct architectural forms.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple and Rajarajeshvara Temple

Both temples are characteristic of the medieval style of temple-making from the 11th century India, though harkening from two different sub-genres with the Rajarajeshvara Temple inspired by the Dravida style of South India. These two temples were also constructed in dedication to the god Shiva. It also employs the use of the towers or shikharas that tower over the ground. Though both are intricate in design, their styles differ vastly with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple employing a smoother surface that seems to cascade down from the towers. The Rajarashevara Temple, on the other hand, is more angular in terms of the surface design, but, more or less, the two temples arise from the same architectural genre.

Page with Jahangir in Darbar and Hour of Cowdust

The two paintings are reminiscent of the Mughal style, despite the second painting coming from a latter period. Like paintings of this style, the figures are tightly woven together around a definite focal point. But between the two, the Jahangir painting employs a more distinctly vivid coloring, whereas the Hour of Cowdust has a more delicate color palette. Again, the subject of the painting completely differs, with the first painting focusing on the court achievements of its painter, Jahangir. On the other hand, the second painting draws metaphor and allegory from Indian spiritual culture as it shows the god Krishna herding cows into the village using his magic flute, despite being inspired by European naturalism. The differences show the two dominating aspects of Indian life the courtly travails of the elite class, and the spiritually-inspired dealings of the lower class.

The Steles of Hammurabi and Naramsin are both of Akkadian origins. They have been found in Susa, Iran which is not in the boundaries of Mesopotamia. While the Stele of Naramsin is made out of pink limestone which do not yield easily to sculptors, the Hammurabi stele is carved out black diorite, a fine grained stone. It easily yields to the sculptor yet it is proven to be hard and polished enough to last whatever type of destruction. Also, unlike the stele of Naramsin, which depicts the victory of Naramsin against the mountain people, the stele of Hammurabi has inscriptions. These inscriptions talk of the code of laws passed by the gods to Hammurabi. It shows that Hammurabi is of equal footing with the gods. This theme is also found in Naramsins stele. The fact that his image is on top of the slab points of his superiority and that he ranks above the common people.

Both the Hagia Sophia and Mosque of Sultan Selim are in Turkey. These are Islamic mosques which are not only architectural wonders but functional religious locations as well. These churches adopted the Byzantine church styles which was very popular during the times these things were built. However, the Hagia Sophia gained more recognition because of its massive dome, which is partiucular to byzantine architectural design. On the other hand, the Mosque of Sultan Selim carries a more modern feel of byzantine architectural design. It also has a dome like the Hagia Sophia, however, the more noticed part of the mosque are the pillars surrounding the dome. Pillars are typical to middle eastern architecture. It carries the illusion of palm trees in the middle of  desert. It gives the feel of having an oasis in the middle of the hot city. Apart from this, as compared to the Hagia Sophia, this mosque is the only with a mihrab that can be seen from any location of the church. There is no need to stay within a location just to get a glance of the mihrab.

The temples of  Kandariya Mahadeva and  Rajarajeshvara are both Indian temples built during the middle ages. However, the Kandariya Mahadeva temple is more preserved unlike the  Rajarajeshvara. It is surrounded by 84 miniature spires and is made for the destruction god, shiva. Conversely, the latter is  made to commemorate not only one god but three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. For this reason, the temple has three parts. It also has a connecting hallway, which is more modern than the Kandariya Mahadeva  temple. The Kandariya Mahadeva  looks like a huge carved piece of stone and not actually a structure.

The paintings, The Hour of Cowdust and Jahangir Darbar are of Indian origins. Both are depicting the culture of India, the religion which respects cows and the light of the world. The paintings are in canvass and colored with watercolor. Both of the paintings speak of the countrys religion but of different gods. On The Hour of Cowdust, the image of the god there are the cows. On the other hand, on the other painting, the god is he who is the light of the world. The paintings also depict the high respects Indians have on their gods, whether this god is an animal or human with preternatural powers or determination.

Conclusion
 All the pieces provided have things in common like origins and the nature of each works. Most of them come from the same country and almost carrying the same theme. The difference in each is mostly found in the physical aspect of the works. This pertains to the materials used in the creation, the design, and the concept altogether. However, all of them speaks of the same aspect of the country of origins culture. For instance, the paintings both spoke of the Indian religion, the material from which they were made were the same but the theme inside each portrait is different. This is the same case as the other pieces. The templese were all for religious worship but by the way each has been designed, one stands out more as an art piece rather than a place for prayer and worship.

Depicting animals in art played a prominent role in the art history of ancient Near East, Early Christian and Islamic Art. It was very common to use animal figures as themes in these arts. The widely used animal figures were lion, horse, bull and sheep. Lets see in detail how the animal themes were used in the above mentioned arts.

Animal Theme in Ancient Near Eastern Architecture
In the ancient Near East, the civic rulers integrated civic designs into the buildings, gateways and sculptures. For discussion, lets take an example of a specific near eastern art that was a gift of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932. It is the human-headed winged lion called lamassu, the colossal gateway figure at the palace of Assurnasirpal II, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, Iraq). 883-859 BCE. The art work is made of alabaster with a height of 10 feet 3  inches. The structure is now showcased at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Stokstad 25).

It was actually a gateway figure that combined the features of a man, a bull, an eagle and a God. Popularly known as lemassus, it has a mans bearded head, a bulls powerful body, an eagles wings and a Gods horned headdress. The figure was designed in such a way that one can view it from the front or from the sides. To support these views, the creature was made to contain five legs.  When one looks from the front, it seems as if the figure is static with two forelegs placed together. In contrast to it, the side view of the figure shows it vigorously striding.

The fiery lamassus was designed as a manifestation of the power of the ruler they defend. The way they structured its powerful arms and placed them in a prominent location reflects domination in the architecture. Also, the detailed depiction of the creatures beards, feathers, and jewels shows the boundless wealth of the era. The art piece was considered to be an inspiration of civic pride as well as fear. Almost all the art works of the ancient Near East had a great political mission.

The Role of Animal Figures in Early Christian Art
Animals played an important role in the early Christian art. Sheep appears in most of the Christian art works that have an animal theme. A lamb was a symbol of sacrifice during the early Christian era. It is still considered to be a symbolism of Christs sacrifice on the cross as Lamb of God.  In many of the Christian art pieces, you could see a flock of sheep as a representation of the apostles or all Christians who are taken care of by their Good Shepherd, Jesus Christ (Stokstad 238). The authors of New Testament Gospels, Evangelists were linked to the creatures including Saint Matthew (man), Saint Mark (lion), Saint Luke (Ox) and Saint John (eagle).

Another animal figure that one can find in this kind of art is horse. The depiction of the animal in the Old Testament was linked to the prophets Elias and Eliseus followed by mythical powerful horses. In context to the four riders of Apocalypse, horses were meant to be followers of death. It was believed that death rides on a horse. To prove this fact in Christian art, one can show the example of a miniature from an ancient missal showcased at the Diocesan Museum, Zagreb. The art portrays St. George on a powerful horse slays the dangerous dragon and liberates the princess (Skrobonja 104). The art work is a perfect example of how animals were considered prominent in ancient Christian art.

Animal figures in Islamic Art
The people of Islam used to include Islamic art even in the objects that they use in day to day life. One such object is a beautiful textile piece having elephant and camel images from Khurasan, Persia (Iran). It is made of dyed silk with the largest fragment measuring 94 x 52 cm. It is now present at Musee du Louvre, Paris. The art employs a technique and design hailing from Sassanian Persia and also have inscribed kufic scripts within. It is just one example of several spectacular textiles artistically designed in Islamic culture. In the cited example, one could see two elephants facing each other, resembling the theme from the ancient near east (Stokstad).

Animal figures appeared in mosaics, paintings and sculpture of the ancient art. There were also mythic creatures such as lamassus and griffins. Animal themes were an integral part of the Near East, Early Christian and Islamic Art. Near eastern architecture had animal figures with a political taste. Sheep figures were prominent in early Christian Art. In the Islamic Art, animal figures are imprinted even in the household objects.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, or  The Met , as it is commonly known, is a grand museum located in New York City, just along the east edge of Central Park. Housing over two million works of art, The Metropolitan Musueum of Art is considered as one of the biggest art museums in the world.

Within its stately halls and vast rooms are some of the finest art pieces to be ever put on display, not just to be taken in as objects of pure aesthetic pleasure, but to also learn from the ways and culture of the respective times and places that they were borne of. Being in the Metropolitan Museum of Art is a truly excellent way to learn of how artworks from different places share common themes as well as maintain a certain uniqueness that gives them their distinctive qualities. A perfect case regarding this matter are the two pieces the  Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the portrait head of a woman,  and the  column statue of St. Hilary of Galeata .

At first glance one would say that the two pieces of sculptures are very much different from each other. While one seems more realistic in terms of bodily proportion and features, the other is more of an exaggerated representation of a person, like a caricature. But a harder look at both pieces would reveal the underlying themes that factor in a certain commonality between them but first, lets have a look at each sculpture individually.

First is the  Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the Portrait head of a Woman  . As the name implies, the statue is of the Greek goddess Tyche, Fortuna to the Romans who was generally the goddess of luck, as it was believed that she was in charge of what is in store for a city in terms of fortune and prosperity. The goddess is showcased with a different head on its body, as it was customary in the dawn of the 18th century, to have the recently excavated sculptures restored in the Roman workshops to compensate for the damages suffered by the statue over time. This sculpture of Tyche was most probably damaged in the head area, and hence it was replaced by a portrait head of a woman, one most probably recently unearthed as well. It was found out that the sculpture of the body of Tyche, dated at around the Roman imperial Period, was matched with the head which was almost from its time, dating as far back as the late Flavian or early Trajanic period.

The identification of the body is not that difficult as the body carries the trademark items of Tyches which are the cornucopia she carries in her left arm to symbolize prosperity, as well as the rudder in her right arm that signifies her capacity to steer or control events that affect that which she presides over. The portrait of the woman, however, was unrecognizable except for the fact that her hair was fashioned in the arrangements of of late first century AD. Perched on a marble base and elevated for onlookers to get a better view, the Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the Portrait head of a Woman is truly a sight to behold. A quick glance would even lead an onlooker to believe that no restorations or alterations were done to the original.

The Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna restored with the Portrait head of a Woman is crafted of fine marble, which is a most suitable medium for depicting deities in an elegant manner. Her stature is that of pride and belongingness, commanding respect and yet still evoking a touch of gentleness. The portraiture heads blank face lends a stern outlook to the sculpture as a whole, as if Tyche was surveying her surroundings with a sense of quiet contentment,.Her elegant, light-looking robes flowing gracefully across her body. This solemn elegance is greatly complemented by the museum interiors and the sidelong lighting cast across her that brings out the details of the sculptures clothing.

The Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata, on the other hand, is a conservative piece of the Italian Saint Hilary of Galeata. It was once said that Hilary exorcised a wealthy noble of a demon that had been ragging him. Hilary was venerated by the man and was given lands and fortune in gratitude. The nobleman also had his whole family christened by Hilary, and eventually had two of his sons to follow in the footsteps of Hilary into Christianity. They had then founded the monastery of Galeata, and soon after, numerous other miracles were attributed to the Saint.

The Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata is a rather dramatic piece of sculpture that depicts the Saint Hilary of Galeata in a wide-eyed gazed transfixed into the distance, grasping a scroll containing scripture, clad in what seems to be thick robes. The portrayal of the saint in this piece is more of a dramatized representation of the beloved Saint, as it is obvious that the sculptor had not been going for anything closely related to realism or hyper-realism. Instead, the sculptor opted to inculcate the necessary features that would help personify Saint Hilary of Galeata. The simplicity of the Saint is also reflected in the manner of which he was sculpted. Most probably working out of a pillar of marble, the sculptor worked to flesh out the well-known saint in a manner that followed the suit of the pillar, creating a restricted upright posture with very few features straying from the original vertical form of the block.

As if to further reflect on the simple life led by many Saints much like Saint Hilary of Galeata, the overall effect of the Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata is that of straightforward simplicity, flaunting nothing of the extravagance or prestige of sainthood but rather the simple background that brings a person to such reverence.

In comparison, it stands that the two sculptures are both of highly venerated figures, one of a goddess that presides among men, while the other is of a man who has risen up to a higher state of being, he idea being those who are of great import and respect are honored in a way that their image is sought to last longer than they do. This immortalization among men is one of the many reasons for visual art since time immemorial.

Another point of comparison is the inherent feeling solemness that shrouds the figures. Both upright and of natural marble tone, relying on detailing to breathe a sense of life into their stone wall facades. The intricate detailing on both pieces are brought to life by the tinge of light delicately washed over the figures from the sides to bring out the shadows in the light creases all over their clothing and accessories. The writings on the Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeatas parchment held in front of the Saint, the folds of his robe, and the deep set features of the face are of the same effect as that of the detailed garb of the goddess of luck as is her intricate hairdo and cornucopia.

The similarities mostly end there though, as the rest of the descriptions tend to branch out from there. On one hand we have the Marble Statue of Tyche-Fortuna Restored with the Portrait Head of a Woman, features of smooth marble, flowing clothing and an overall smooth, streamlined look, with long smooth lines dominating in the overall outcome This expresses elegance and a sort of ethereal feel or mood as often associated with gods, goddesses, and deities. The Marble Column Statue of Saint Hilary of Galeata however, seems rougher and more coarse, with restrictions to the actual sculpting that limited the figure into a tightly bound column, causing the  figure to appear more  down to earth  and more  human , as opposed to the prestigious personification of the  goddess Tyche. Even the hues of marble denote a difference between that of a higher a being and that of a mere man despite his being venerated and revered.

In summary, the two pieces seem to be depicting two objects of different intent, albeit having the same basic premise of rendering a human body from marble. What is evident from the study of both figures however, is the manner of how they portray to different beings of the same appearance. The elegance and overall smooth qualities of a supernatural being as shown in human form, somehow manages to retain that elegance and ethereal quality by means of flowing lines and a smooth texture, while the elementary simplicity of man, despite being raised to a higher state of being, still shines through with the way he is immortalized with stiffer, heavier lines that give him a more  solid  feel, as well as a face that manages to express emotion despite being set in stone. It is here that we understand not only the beauty of both works, but also in the way man sees himself in relation to those he sacred or holy.