Art

The Age of Enlightenment is a period in European history which covers roughly the eighteenth century. It is a stage where human intelligence one gained supreme power over other faculties of man, especially faith. It heralds the beginning of mans quest for knowledge which is not anymore grounded on superstition, mysticism or even religion but rather on the united forces of empirical data and application of reason. New ideas and new approaches were produced and brought significant changes to the society which we now live in.

One of the factors which may have brought mans interest back to his capacity to form, operate and discern upon concepts through the method of abstraction rather than rest all claim of validity to spirituality and the church is Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason. Prior to the Age of Enlightenment, Europe witnessed the slow collapse of the Papacy and the nobility. Gone are the days when the word of the Pope signified obedience and defiance is equivalent to ones demise. Now is the time to dare oneself and know the world. It is not a sin anymore to desire knowledge beyond what our eyes can see rather it becomes mans quest. It also provided a fresh outlook regarding the principles which governs nature, man and society which eventually formed a cosmopolitan solidarity of enlightened intellectuals as seen in the academy and even at coffeehouses. The death of fear of being ostracized produced a bold assault and resentment towards authority which includes the government and the church.
 
Scientists gained support and earned prominent status in society. The Royal Society of London became the home base for intellectual correspondence, criticisms and debates. Academic discussions were now possible thanks to the invention of the printing press which made cheaper books, journals, pamphlets and magazines. It revolutionized the literacy rating of European citizens as a result of everyones desire to learn. Everyone wanted to be educated and saw this as an opportunity to improve their social status. A new ideal form of knowledge was formulated which was largely based on particularities, observable facts and experience rather than the previous appeal to principles and speculation. The scientific method was applied in almost all avenues of inquiry and was accepted as the path towards acquiring knowledge.

Unfortunately, some of the philosophies and ideologies which were introduced during this time lead to bloody and violent revolutions. The introduction of the principles of republicanism, citizenship and rights based on the works of Voltaire and Roussau coupled with John Stuarts Mill division of labor principle in his celebrated book Wealth of Nations resulted to the French Revolution and the death of thousands of Europeans. Huge war debts, the monarchys lack of military credibility, insufficient social services and increasing taxation rates pushed the people to resent the traditional form of government which was royal absolutism. The only remedy they see possible is the restructuring of the government and adherence to the philosophical ideology of Roussau in order to have a general will. The new government will aim solely on the real interest of every member of society and will not be swayed by personal interests which the monarchies and this can only be done if every member enters a new social contract and surrender their individual rights. This movement further supported anti-clericalism in reference to Voltaires ideology which allows freedom of religion to exist in Europe and considered religion as a universal brotherhood rather than the oppressive character which Catholicism exposed to the world.  Fortunately, the blood of those who died during the French Revolution was not wasted. The Revolution made a significant contribution to the world through the language of abstract rights which are still being practiced today. It signaled the end of Feudal System and welcomed the reign of the bourgeoisie class.

The Industrial Revolution provided confidence and power to the middle class. In the work of Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, he suggests a free market economy is more beneficial to society. In congruence to the principle of humanism and individualism which is one of the major principle highlighted in this era, Smith believed that a natural flow in capital will entail an individual to strive harder in order to make better his own conditions in society. Since man is the captain of his fate, he alone has the power to improve it. The lesser the dictates of government have towards its populace the better will be its growth and development. This analysis regarding flow of wealth and its acquisition formed the foundation of major economic principles which are still being used today like the law of supply and demand.  It is indeed amazing how a century could amass such intellectual and cultural development.

The Age of Enlightenment did not happen on French territory alone yet it made France the focus of attention because of the major events that occurred within the region which eventually reshaped itself as a nation. It has become the source of political, social, scientific and industrial revolutions. It embraced the new ideologies which thinkers freshly crafted and with the slow advancement of scientific discovery paved way to the modernist era. Some of its major contributions to the world can be seen in the American Declaration of Independence, The United States Bill of Rights, and the French Declaration of Man and of the Citizen. One may say that much that we have today is the fruits of labor, blood and lives which were sacrificed during the time of the Enlightenment. The appropriateness of the word enlightenment to the era may still be debatable at some point because it has produced barbaric actions as seen in the Reign of Terror yet there is no doubt to the fact that freedom from the chains of tradition has produced more positive results.

In the 15th century, art was experiencing a religious renaissance in Europe.  This rebirth was founded essentially in the theological, philosophical, and humanistic teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.  By taking a look at two pieces of art, Jan van Eycks Ghent Altarpiece, Saint Bravo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium (1432) and Masaccios Holy Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy (1428), one is able to discern the meaning and intention of each artist in regard to the relationship between mortal and divine spheres of existence.  Although both artists are capturing the significance of God in the life of man, Jan van Eyck and Masaccio certainly differ in their artistic expression.  While Jan van Eycks concentration is more centered on modest hierarchy, Masaccio creates a gentler composition and more pastoral scene.  By comparing elements of both works of art, one is able to discern the similarities and differences between Jan van Eycks Ghent Altarpiece and the Masaccios Holy Trinity.

Contextual Scene
In the contextual scenes of both works of art, one notices the similarity of both works in expressing the relationship of God to man, yet the Ghent Altarpiece evokes a sense of stark and simplistic atmosphere while the Holy Trinity exudes a deeper sense of beauty and sensitivity.  In its scenery, the Ghent Altarpiece is minimal and bare.  The background consists of an indoor scene with Roman columns and an archway, devoid of much color aside from some simple reds and blues most noticeable in the clothing of the subjects.  In the context of the Holy Trinity, there is a soft, detailed, and interactive scene including a pastoral landscape, worshippers, and even Adam and Eve.  The use of color in this painting is very rich and diverse, the artist using a full spectrum to create his scene, yet there is also a similarity to the Ghent altarpiece in the artists use of warm red and dark blue for the clothing of the subjects.  The contexts of both paintings call attention to the ways in which atmospheres are set to pay tribute to the relationship between God and man, yet are more interactive and beautiful in the Holy Trinity painting.

Subject Placement
The placement of the subjects within the painting is an important aspect of considering the meaning of a piece of religious art, and both the Ghent Altarpiece and the Holy Trinity use the placement of subjects to tell a story about the relationship of God to man.  In the Ghent Altarpiece, God the Father is looming above all others and the crucified Jesus.  Below Jesus is Mary and Saint John the Baptist, Mary to his right and Saint John to his left.  Further below are the married couple Cardoni, the purchasers of the fresco, with the husband to the right of Jesus and the wife to the left.  In the Holy Trinity painting, God the Father is seated enthroned with Mary and Saint John the Baptist seated only slightly below him to his right and left.  To the right of Mary is Adam and to the left of Saint John is Eve.  Below this upper level is a lower level depicting the sun, the Holy Spirit, descending down onto the Lamb of God in the pastoral scene.  Subject placement in both paintings is highly significant, because it resonates a sense of the order of things.  Here, the subjects placed in the upper, central levels of each painting are represented with a certain kind of significance in being more powerful or preceding others.

Masculine Leadership
When comparing the two paintings, it is also important to consider the traditional idea of male leadership when viewing the Ghent Altarpiece and the Holy Trinity.  In the Ghent Altarpiece, the placement of the subjects within the painting most certainly calls attention to male leadership in the sense of God the Father being placed above Jesus, Jesus above Mary and Saint John, and Mary and Saint John above the Cardoni couple.  However, one must also wonder about the use of color.  The colors are significant, because they call attention to the traditional masculine red and the feminine blue.  It is interesting that the feminine blue is not seen solely on the right side of the Father, as Mary is traditionally seated at the right hand of the Father and Jesus.  Blue is located on the left side of the clothes of God the Father, from his perspective, and also on the left side of the painting in the clothes of the Cardoni wife.  The changeability between sides leads to a distinct ambivalence about male and female dominance.  In the Holy Trinity painting, the traditional hierarchy is not as noticeable.  Although God the Father is placed at the greatest height in the center of the painting, it is interesting that Mary and Saint John, even Adam and Eve, are seated above Jesus depicted as the pastoral lamb.  Perhaps this difference is related not to dominance but to precedence, as Adam, Eve, Mary, and Saint John were all born before Jesus.  In regard to the colors, the masculine red and the feminine blue, the Holy Trinity painting is traditional in the sense that God the Father is clothed in red and Mary in blue, however, the musician to the left side of the Father is clothed in blue and the reader to the right side of Mary is clothed in red, lending a slight disruption to the traditional color scheme.

Conclusion
In comparing the Ghent Altarpiece and the Holy Trinity painting, it is important to consider all elements of each piece and to relate them to one another and the differing perspectives of the time.  Religious art is almost always complex and relating to a certain story and point of view.  By paying attention to elements such as the contextual scene, subject placement, and masculine leadership, one is able to draw conclusions about the particular views of the artist and the message contained in the image of the painting.  The Ghent Altarpiece, although traditional and stark, breaks new ground in its color scheme and subject placement, and the Holy Trinity, beautiful and pastoral, breaks new ground in its emphasis on time and precedence.  The new ideas about religion and the relationship between God and man are told through the minute yet detailed messages contained within each interactive Renaissance painting.

Throughout the 20th century, it is undeniable that the expressionism may appropriately be considered as the forefront of German and European art. Interestingly though, the term expressionism cannot be perceived as strict and unified in fact, the term has been used to collectively categorize a myriad of different styles and approaches while still maintaining the requirement for an emphasis on emotion and perception (Wolf, 2004). In this sense, it would be possible to consider expressionist art as more of a direct manifestation of an artists point of view instead of being a specific style or genre in which a myriad of specific requirements must be met. Regardless of the differences, as noted beforehand, it is essential for immense emotions to be suitably and effectively projected prior to which artist or a specific work would be considered as expressionist in relation to this, it is essential to note that Germans have been known for their capability in infusing emotion into works of art even prior to the 20th century, and thus the emergence of expressionism may have been both expectable and inevitable (Wolf, 2004).

Expressionism may be perceived as an example of unity and at the same time disarray. The approaches of artists considered as expressionist still differed. In relation to this, it would not be surprising to find an artist commonly considered as expressionist to critique the many aspects of expressionist art. In particular, an example of such would be Max Beckmann. Instead of praising the manner in which abstraction have been effectively used for expressionist art to further convey emotions, Beckmann instead criticized the tendency of expressionist artists to forget the vital need to maintain a degree of objectivity (Elger, 2002). Eventually, Beckmann became a foremost example an artist who embodies a new approach to expressionism. Hence, in order to further understand such developments throughout the history of expressionism and art during the 20th century, it is necessary to specifically evaluate and analyze the works of two distinct artists during the period, namely Egon Schieles Death and the Maiden and Max Beckmanns Brother and Sister.  

Death and the Maiden (1915), Initial Appeal
Schieles Death and the Maiden, an oil on canvas painting, is without doubt a highly emotional painting despite the presence of a rather dark imagery. From a quick glance of the painting, the features of both death and the maiden whom he holds become a distinct point for further scrutiny. For one, the it is apparent that the faces of both Death and his maiden are positioned in a pessimistic manner. To further explain, the facial expressions of both figures are clearly filled with sadness, as if parting ways is inevitable. In addition, the manner in which the two are holding each other are indicative of deep emotions as well. Both characters are embracing each other, in a deep yet romantic aspect rather than one that implies sensuality and erotic tendencies. Of course, the foreground and other objects in the painting must be understood as well. Basically, among the most notable aspects of the background is that it is mainly composed of soil. One would develop an idea that the couple are merely residing or hiding in a hollow underground location. Expectedly though, this reflects the common connotation regarding death and the passage to the underworld, specifically its emptiness and barren appearance.      

Aside from the characters and the background, another notable object in the painting is the cloth which covers the area wherein both Death and his maiden is embracing. The presence of the cloth highlights the possibility that sexual manifestations of affection have occurred or would occur despite such, it is still apparent that lust is not among the main themes of the painting. The coarse approach as well as the level of detail and objectivity or realism apparent in the painting is also another point which demands attention. Specifically, the presence of such details allows the audience to establish a more direct connection with the situation through realism. Abstraction is maintained to a degree in terms of style as well. Also, as mentioned beforehand, the choice of rather dark colors, especially earth tones, have further supported the image of sadness as such colors are generally known to be ideal for such purposes. Therefore, in accordance to Nietzsches implied notion wherein both reality and representation exist in an inseparable manner (Cazeaux, 2000), the emotions triggered from viewing Schieles painting is indeed a prime example in terms of how expressionist art may be considered as the unique product of ones perception.  

Roots of Schieles Accomplishment
Aside from providing a raw analysis of the painting, it would be a worthwhile endeavor to discuss Schieles background and the reason as to how the painting came to be. Schiele hails from Austria and has been among those taught and supported by Gustav Klimt in particular, given the nature of Klimt to allow artists such as Schiele to become involved in exhibits to display their accomplishments is undeniably a vital opportunity for Schiele during his earlier years as an artist (Owen, 1998). Aside from such an opportunity, the tendency of the aforesaid artists inclination to detail aspects of anatomy has been historically defined and associated with certain events with his family. Specifically, due to the health concerns of his father, as well as the reasons for his fathers eventual demise, Schiele believed that there is a distinct relation between the ones mind and ones body (Owen, 1998). Hence, it would be appropriate to assume that the aforesaid interest became the basis for most of his works which mainly focused representations and depictions of the human body. However, despite the level of detail placed upon the human figure in the Death and the Maiden, it is still apparent that the human figure is not the focus of the painting.

Specific experiences in his life may have been the main reason as to why he was able to paint the aforesaid piece in such a manner. As the painting radiates both strong emotions in terms of love and despair, it would be most ideal to delineate some of the relationships and affairs in which Schiele was involved in. Of these, Schieles romantic involvement with Wally Neuzil and Edith Harms would be the most important to discuss in relation to the Death and the Maiden. Wally Neuzil has been with Schiele for several years and certainly an essential part of Schieles artistic growth to further expound, Wally assumed the role of the main model for many of Schieles works which focused upon the female anatomy even those with a nude and erotic image (Steiner, 2004). Given such, it would not be a difficult task to understand the importance and impact of Wally on Schieles life in general. However, despite the essential significance of Wally, he soon found an opportunity to be romantically involved with another woman. Specifically, Edith Harms became Schieles love interest during times in which he and Wally are still in a relationship.

Eventually, Schiele decided to marry Edith Harms instead of Wally Neuzil interestingly though, Schiele attempted to maintain close romantic relations with Wally, an effort which did not achieve fruition (Steiner, 2004). Of course, such an ideal outcome, in relation to the needs and wants of Schiele, would not be possible as it would only initiate envy and doubt from both individuals. Hence, instead of complying with Schieles requests to meet from time to time for recreational purposes, Wally completely eliminated the possibility of such as she decided to move away from Schieles life completely (Steiner, 2004). As one may expect, considerable repercussions upon Schieles aspirations was brought forth by such an outcome despite the fact that he was still going to be married to Edith. In addition, realizations of Wallys worth and importance came too late for him and thus resulted in unparalleled grief and pain from which the he painted the Death and the Maiden. Thus, the distinct feeling of grief which may be seen from the painting, as noted throughout the raw assessment of the painting, interestingly is an extension of Schieles emotional state during such times in his life.      

Brother and Sister (1933), Outright Impact
Max Beckmanns Brother and Sister, also an oil on canvas painting, also expresses a theme associated with both romantic and sexual theme. Immediate upon looking at the painting, the combination of bright hues and color choices which express a sense of wealth and royalty express a notion which highlights the fact that the siblings depicted in the painting are of high social status. In addition, the mere appearance of the figures or characters in the painting is of majestic form as well further serving as testament to the aforementioned point. The gestures and movement of the characters also embody intimacy as a message is being carefully and playfully whispered from one to another furthermore, the lack of clothing of course presents a notion that the siblings are being enticed into engaging in mutual sexual pursuits with each other. Expectedly, in the context of the Western world, and throughout the world in general, sexual and even romantic associations between those related in blood are regarded as an unacceptable act. Specifically, it would not be inappropriate to expect that for those with such relationships, regardless of the historical period, societal and legal repercussions would subsequently arise. Therefore, the theme of an unacceptable love between siblings is clearly depicted in the painting.

Interestingly, in all the objects seen in the painting, the most notable and considerably out of place is the sword. In particular, the sword is situated between the siblings as if serving as a barrier which would prevent the unacceptable union of the two. In this sense, the sword may be perceived as either representative of social acceptance or humanitys universal laws which serve as an essential means of prevention for such unholy practices. However, despite the presence of a considerably imposing sword between them, it is still evident that the siblings are still attempting to pursue their wants albeit to a limited extent. Given that expressionism is considered as a form of symbolisms and is an extension of an artists perception and spirit (Harrison  Wood, 2003), then it would not be difficult to understand the reason as to why such a painting is considered as the work of an artist adept in the approach and rationale of expressionism. Despite such though, as noted beforehand, Max Beckmann is not an artist who wills to be regarded as among the expressionist painters of his time.  

Max Beckmanns Interest and Perception
In order to properly comprehend the aforementioned painting of Max Beckmann, it would be vital to further assess his interests as an artist. Throughout his career as an artist, more specifically as a painter, Beckmann eventually transitioned from having to find the style most suitable to his approach to one who expresses his thoughts and searches for his inner being through his own art (Selz  Beckmann, 1987). In this sense, art became the main means for Beckmann to reflect and possibly to chronicle his experiences and thoughts. Furthermore, Beckmanns willingness to let others know of his thoughts became a point of concern for those attempting to unravel the meaning imbued in Beckmanns paintings. Specifically, during the advent of the World War and the rise of the Nazi, Beckmanns tendency to maintain his privacy in terms of his views and thoughts became more evident also, being branded as among the Degenerate Artists further supported such a stance but also initiated a personal reflection upon the tendencies of humanity (Selz  Beckmann, 1987). A direct example or result of the aforesaid changes in Beckmanns perception and personality would be the painting Brother and Sister.  

Interestingly, ancient mythology became the Beckmanns focus throughout his pursuit to understand more of humanitys history. Specifically, his pursuit to highlight and incorporate Greek and Norse mythologies in his art began during the 1930s Brother and Sister was made after Beckmann has accomplished one of his greatest achievements, the Rape of Europa (Selz  Beckmann, 1987). The main theme of the painting, from a personal analysis of the piece, is interestingly in agreement with the views and critical analysis presented in literature. In particular, the painting is actually a depiction of the sibling from Norse mythology, Sigmund and Siglinde whom are known to have a relationship which transcends core sibling-based affection to further expound, in order to prevent the union of the two, the divine sword known as Gram (Selz  Beckmann, 1987). In a way, Beckmann may have perceived such unions or relationships as naturally occurring yet for the better of humanity are suppressed by rules and judgment despite the fact that emotions and desires are affected and unfulfilled in this case the appropriate outcome is emphasized and given priority.      

Conclusion
Both works analyzed Egon Schieles Death and the Mistress and Max Beckmanns Brother and Sister, highlight themes which expresses a strong emotional response without difficulty. As noted beforehand, expressionism, aside from being mainly associated with abstraction, is most importantly a rekindling of the spirit of art which has been partly lost furthermore, the effective incorporation of emotions into art as well as the presence of a more realistic perspective on how art is regarded and appreciated also manifested during the advent of expressionism (Harrison  Wood, 2003). In relation to this, it is undeniable that both Schieles and Beckmanns works as discussed above may be considered as appropriate examples of expressionist art. However, as noted above as well, Beckmann eventually detached himself from being classified as one who champions expressionism. It is important to note though that Beckmann has also been associated with becoming increasingly personal and unwilling to discuss his position and stance throughout his career also, his main argument against expressionism was based upon the excessive use of abstraction of expressionists which became apparent during his time (Selz  Beckmann, 1987).

Hence, it may not be appropriate to assume that Beckmann was against expressionism. Instead it would be most suitable to perceive his decisions as an argument against the trend and changes occurring in expressionism. It is most probable that those who began and furthered the expressionist era such as Schiele have not deviated from a sufficient degree of objectivity.  Nevertheless, despite the such disagreements and concerns, it is without doubt that both Schiele and Beckmann may appropriately be branded as superb expressionists as the key element of expressionism, emotions, have been infused into their achievements.

Fatherhood is a blessing. Not everyone is given the chance to be a father. It is both a privilege and a responsibility. There is no perfect father, but that does not mean one should stop striving to be one. There is no perfect father and yet fathers have many options on how they can make their children love them for who they are, and that is almost as close as being the perfect father in the eyes of those who appreciate them. Fatherhood is complex, the complexities of life that the father is thrust into molds and defines the father. Even with these differences, there is no better father over the other only those who did more and those who did less, those whose actions led them to a particular place and condition, and those who opted for the other path at the crossroads. There is no individual who can claim to be the perfect authority on fatherhood, and yet, what every father has to say about fatherhood has a meaning and significance. These things are borne out of experience, not something that cannot be bought or easily asked for or take from anyone. There are many ways to define the real meaning and the real ethos and essence of being a father and fatherhood. For most people, the likely course of action is finding that one personal experience that encapsulates how the father feels that leads him towards the understanding of what fatherhood and being a father is all about.

Fatherhood means being there for your children, not just as the financial of the things that the children need, but also as a source of emotional and psychological strength especially during formative years. Being a father means knowing the strengths of the children and harnessing them. Being a father means being able to understand the concept of work and play for both the parent and the children, the father acting the role of providing the balance necessary for the discipline of the children (Cosby, 1986, p. 172). All of these things can be seen in an experience. My two sons - Dallas and Tyson - are very smart kids. As a father, I dont push them to just one direction. I am supportive of their educational experience but I also encourage them to enjoy life and do other things, things that they actually want and enjoy doing. One of the things that I noticed about them is that they are both enjoying playing video games. While other parents might restrict them or find this inclination as a point of concern since it may affect school, I encourage them not just to enjoy video games but also to find out for themselves the need to strike a balance between video games and the other aspects of their life. Here, I was able to see how their being smart comes into play again.

They actually understand the responsibility. As a father, it does not mean that I need to be authoritative all the time and that it helps in their healthy growth that I also create an atmosphere of autonomy for my two children as well as for my wife Andrea. Because of this, we all are able to enjoy more life and living - not apart but together. There are less friction to worry about. During weekends when we all sit down and play video games, I can see how smart my two kids are based on how they approach situations in the game. I think this form of critical thinking can also help them form a sound and solid personality as they grow up. As a father, part of my responsibility is to make sure that positive aspects like this remain unhampered to help the child grow and make them confident (Horn, Blankenhorn, Pearlstein, 1999, p. 50). Fatherhood then, means acting and playing many different roles and wearing different hats  guardian, protector, provider or breadwinner which is a traditional role (Parke, 1996, p. 1), friend, the voice of reason and encouragement and the hand of guidance, compassion and love, among others.

Overall, this experience encapsulates the essence of fatherhood - the need to know how to define a sense of balance in everything and to be responsible enough in making sure that this sense of balance is maintained so that the family benefits in the end. Fatherhood is a fulltime job that requires the juggling of many different things. To be successful in it, the key is achieving balance  balance between work and play, balance in being a father and a friend and in being a husband and a father, the balance between exerting authority and providing autonomy, the balance between leading the way and allowing the other members of the family to the beat and rhythm of their own drums, the balance in what the father provides for the children including education, health, welfare and play etc.

I chose to compare and contrast two works of art that featured the god Dionysos. Dionysos was a god of celebration and wine, promoting both the intoxicating power of wine and its social benefits for bringing people together. He was an advocate of peace and a promoter of peaceful civilization. Both The Hope Dionysos and the Triumph of Dionysos and the Seasons Sarcophagus represent why Dionysos was such an important and celebrated figure in mythology, which is why I chose to analyze two works of art that centered on him. My first impression of each piece was of Dionysos as a peaceful, benevolent and joyful figure. I was struck by the calm peacefulness he embodied in The Hope Dionysos and the happiness he shared on the Triumph of Dionysos and the Seasons Sarcophagus. Though there are many elements to compare and contrast, my analysis will show that both pieces are tributes and representations of Dionysos meaning and purpose in Roman art.

The Hope Dionysos, displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Arts Greek and Roman Art gallery, depicts Dionysos standing and leaning with one arm on a smaller female figure that is believed to Spes, the personification of hope. He is shown without his usual attributes of a drinking cup or a pinecone-topped staff, and both the hand at his side and the hand resting on Spes and reaching out towards the viewer are empty. Spes, however, holds what appears to be a lotus flower in her hand. This image, with the personification of hope, could have been an allegorical representation of the joyful side of Dionysos dual nature. Its also possible that this was meant as a historical representation of celebration of peace, and that the combination of Dionysos as the god of celebration and Spes as the representation of peace were meant to signify joyfulness at the end of a war.

The piece has been sculpted from marble to have a smooth finish, and even the intricate details of the folds in Dionysos cloak and chiton are smoothly sculpted into soft, careful folds of fabric. Spes holds the folds of her chiton in one hand and the fabric is again smoothly sculpted. No part of the sculpture has been left rough, giving the piece an overall smooth, finished, polished effect. No extra color or gilding has been added and the marble is a uniform color, giving it a natural, human feel. The sculpture was sculpted in the late first century AD, but restored in the eighteenth century by Vincenzo Pacetti. The most obvious evidence of the restoration efforts can be seen in the base that Spes is standing on. The base is a slightly rougher, obviously different texture than the rest of the piece. The base is much sharper and more angular than the rest of the details, making the sharply defined corners of the base stand in contrast to the soft folds of the cloak of the figure standing on it.

There are many archaistic details in this sculpture that aid in the overall feel of the piece. The presence of Spes herself is an archaistic detail, as are many of her physical characteristics. Her hair is tightly curled in a series of rows across her forehead, a style frequently seen in archaistic art. There are also heavy pleats and folds in the front of her chiton and much attention given to creating smoothing detail on the front of Dionysos garment, another archaistic detail meant to focus the eye on the center of the sculpture. This is perhaps why the upraised hand of Spes is placed at about the same level as the midsection of Dionysos, so that the viewer would see the flower in her hand.

The size difference between the two figures serves to convey a sense of naturalism to the sculpture also, with Spes female figure obviously smaller and dressed in more feminine apparel than Dionysos, yet still offering him support. Dionysos towers over Spes, indicating masculinity and possibly an older age. The scale of the sculpture, however, is larger than lifelike which detracts from the naturalistic feel of the two figures. The sculpture stands almost seven feet, with the figure of Dionysos filling all of that space. Spes is obviously smaller, but has been given a base that makes her seem almost as tall.

The poses of the two figures suggest a knowing relationship to one another. There is fluidity to the figure of Dionysos, as evidenced in the one arm hanging naturally to the side and the relaxed shoulders. Spes is archaistically stiff and straight, staring straight ahead instead of making eye contact with Dionysos or looking at the object shes holding in her hand. Though their postures are different the two figures support each other, suggesting a caring relationship and making them allies. The figures can be viewed from all angles, but the sculpture is ideally meant to be viewed from the front with the viewer standing still. There is as much attention given to the folds in the clothing and standing postures of the figures in the back of the sculpture as in the front, indicating that while it was probably meant to be viewed from the front, it is accessible from all angles. While the sculpture is a solitary piece instead of a larger faade it was likely that it was intended for public viewing.

The Triumph of Dionysos and the Seasons Sarcophagus is also displayed in the METs Greek and Roman Art Gallery. It was also sculpted out of marble, but it was sculpted around 260. The choice of marble as medium once again allowed the sculptor to create smooth, even lines and rounded curves, allowing for the eye to travel seamlessly from one figure to the next and for all the details meant to represent nature to come to life. The smoothness of the marble works in a similar way to affect the focal point of the viewer with The Hope Dionysos. The sarcophagus depicts the god Dionysos and the four seasons, along with almost forty other animal and human figures, celebrating a victory. Given that this piece is a sarcophagus intended for use in burial it is logical to assume that the characters are celebrating a triumph over death and celebrating eternal life. Conversely, the celebration could also be interpreted as a celebration of life, with Dionysos representing everyday joy and revelry and the seasons representing a sort of triumph over the passage of time. As a sarcophagus like this one would have been very expensive, this sarcophagus represents wealth and prestige. Many sculptors of funerary art sculpted prearranged scenes, so the presence of the seasons and Dionysos doesnt mean that the person being interred had any deep connection with any of them. Either way, this piece serves a much more practical purpose than The Hope Dionysos. The sarcophagus would have been used in funeral services and to lay a deceased person to rest. There was no major restoration done on the sarcophagus, though its lid is missing. This lack of need for repair could be due to the fact that the figures are sculpted deeply into the marble, leaving fewer pieces extended outward to be broken.

The choice of marble works well on the sarcophagus to help create a continuous scene all the way around the piece. All rough edges have been smoothed and the scene flows seamlessly around, the characters all interacting with multiple others around them. Dionysos can be at the center seated on a large cat holding his traditional staff topped with a pinecone. His other hand appears to be passing something else, maybe a flask of wine, to another figure to his left. Larger than Dionysos and flanking him on his left and right are four figures meant to represent the seasons of Spring, Summer, Winter and Fall. These characters are unusual representations for two reasons. First, the seasons were traditionally represented by female figures, while these are clearly male. Second, Dionysos is usually depicted being accompanied by female revellers, and the majority of the figures in this entire piece appear to be male. There is also no evidence of archaistic detail here. The hair is loose and free-flowing, clothing is draped over the shoulders instead of being smoothed over the midsection, and the postures of all the figures are all natural and relaxed instead of rigid and staring straight ahead.

The scale of the sarcophagus is only 34 inches high, making it relatively small in comparison to The Hope Dionysos. While it would have been long and wide enough to house a body for burial, it stands low to the ground in relation to the statue that stood almost seven feet tall. This makes the figures winding around the sarcophagus obviously under life size, but they stand in realistic proportion to one another. The scene feels realistic because all the figures are similar in size. The seasons are taller than Dionysos, and appear younger and more jubilant. This larger stature could be to represent them as forces of nature. Dionysos natural, relaxed stature is similar to that in The Hope Dionysos even though he is much more animated here. Around them are more figures of humans and animals, all smaller than the figures of the seasons but in relatively natural proportion to Dionysos. Age and gender is conveyed here in the youthful-looking hair and physiques of the seasons and Dionysos. Elsewhere in the scene older men are identified by long, heavy beards and heavy-lidded eyes. There are young boys or angels at the feel of the animal Dionysos is riding and at other locations in the scene. They are smaller and often kneel at the feet of the larger figures, signifying youth. Some elements are not entirely realistic on the sarcophagus, like the giant snake that winds around the side or the panther in the front. Other human figures convey realistic poses and expressions and are much more natural.

Overall, the majority of the figures are standing and facing one another instead of facing outward towards the viewer. Unlike The Hope Dionysos in which both figures faced and reached towards the viewer, in this scene the figures appear more concerned with celebrating with one another than looking forward at the viewer. The figures of the characters around the sides of the sarcophagus have turned heads and torsos, indicating that they are moving towards the front and center of the scene where Dionysos and the seasons figures are present. Many of the figures around the sides bear fruit and baskets in their hands, making it appear that they have come to give offerings to Dionysos in his celebration. The poses are all fluid and natural. The use of marble as a medium allowed the sculptor to create a great deal of light and shade with high relief. The Hope Dionysos does not contain this element of high relief, making it realistic but without so much light and shade present.

The viewpoint of this sarcophagus is markedly different than the previous sculpture. While The Hope Dionysos could be walked around and viewed from other angles, there was not as much detail given to the back and sides as to the front. The Triumph of Dionysus and the Seasons Sarcophagus is meant to be viewed from all sides and the detail from any angle is equally richly illustrated. The characters all interact with one another and with the animals around them, even at the rounded corners of the chamber. This continuous scene effectively implies movement and life and encourages the viewer to walk around it and view the full scene. This is an indication that the funeral services it was created for would be an active one, with patrons walking around the sarcophagus while paying their respects. This continuous image functioning as an invitation for movement in the room could also mean that the sarcophagus was intended for public viewing. This sarcophagus would have been meant to stand alone instead of being part of a larger installation. It is meant to be viewed from every angle, and while its function as a sarcophagus required that it adhere to certain dimensions, the artist worked within these dimensions and functional requirements to create a moving work of art.

The Hope Dionysos and The Triumph of Dionysos and the Seasons Sarcophagus have striking differences and similarities. The representation of Dionysos himself is perhaps one of the most evident differences. In the sculpture Dionysos appears as an older man, fully clothed, standing still and leaning on another figure for support. In the scene on the sarcophagus, however, he is young, jubilant, and actively relating to the multitude of other figures surrounding him. He is standing still in the sculpture and seems to evoke an almost sombre air of peacefulness, while in the sarcophagus scene he is happy, free, and all the other figures in the scene seem to be clamouring to get to him. The interaction of the figures is another striking difference between two. In the sculpture Dionysos leans on Spes for support, but does not look at her or interact with her. In the sarcophagus scene he is looking to his side at all the revellers accompanying him and interacting with them all. The two pieces represent two very different sides of Dionysos, which is perhaps fitting because of the dual nature he traditionally represented.

The first paper seems to be done poorly in terms of relevance to the topic and level of creativity reached. The idea behind the poster and the message with relevance to the topic given do not match up that well. There seems to be usage of text types and design in terms of the character, but inventiveness of thought seems to be absent from the posters (with the exception of poster number 2, wherein addition of the ribbon to the tire shows a comparison). The posters of The truth about forever however seem to be in line with the idea you get of a novel named that  especially where flowers are written in flowers. There seems to be lacking congruence in meaning when we talk about what the subject is and what has been depicted in the posters number 6 and 7. If there had been true illustration of thought on paper, the posters had been a lot more meaningful like can be found somewhat in number 8 with the way forever hangs representing the fact that the letters can fall thereby snatching away that reality from the holder. Flat visual language is what the first person has made use of. If this is the syle she wants to adopt then its worthy taking a look at the work of Mario Hugo since that conforms with the beautifu workings of graphic visual language.

The second paper shows Kellinger drawings very beautifully and I should say very nice effort to all the posters in this section. Unlike, the first setoff posters, this second set seems to be high in similarity of thought and design  creativity. The idea of a man destroying the future of a bank has been very well displayed through the use of slogans, fire and a downward sloping graph depicting downfall. However, the use of a flag was a little inappropriate in the first drawing since it depicts victory and conquer, which was not the case in real. Sparks, smoke and rubble and the use of a hand-grenade shows the destruction (figuratively, of course) which completely are in line with the entire idea of these posters. I have to say these posters, each one of them are very well done  both idea  concept wise as well as creativity  design wise.

Statue of a Wounded Amazon and Statue of an Old (Market) Woman
Walking through the hallowed halls of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, one cannot help but be amazed at the breadth and quantity of sculptures that fill its many floors. But of all those sculptures, one cannot help but feel a sense of amazement at the life-like qualities of those created by Greek and Roman artists. Marble in medium, these works of art are the products of a culture surrounded by myth and an appreciation of the human anatomy. For this paper, I shall focus on two of these works, The Marble Statue of the a Wounded Amazon and The Marble Statue of an Old (Market) Woman, whilst applying a critical eye in analyzing the form and function of the pieces.

Unlike the second statue, which we will be discussed in-depth later, The Marble Statue of a Wounded Amazon obviously echoes the Romans fascination with Greek mythology and style. A Roman copy of a Greek, bronze original, it stands at 80  inches and as made 1st-2nd century A.D., though the original Greek work is dated at 450-425 B.C. Brought to life is a depiction of an Amazon, a mythological race of women warriors from Cappadocia. Considered a threat by many Greek polis, particularly that of Athens which they have supposedly conquered for a short time, these women were fought by Greek heroes of great renown such as Hercules and Achilles (Snider n.d.). According to the website of The Met (2010), scholars believe that the statue was once an entry into a competition for the creation of an Amazon sculpture for the temple of Artemis back in the mid-fifth century B.C.

The statue is shown standing up, one arm with a missing hand resting on a pillar and the other placed high above her hand in a position usually associated with either sleep or death (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2010). It is also important to note the intricacy of the lines depicted by the toga as if falls carelessly from the body of the warrior. This clearly shows the craftsmanship of the artist and his understanding of the importance of movement in sculptures. At first glance one wouldnt think of a warrior in battle, but a small bleeding gash under her right breast and a broken strap from her toga implies that she had come from fighting.

But despite a notion of Amazonian women as hard-hitting and brutish, this statue, on the other hand, oozes with quiet femininity, with its sinuous lines and soft curves that can sometimes denote vulgarity and sexuality. And despite having come from battle, there is simplicity with the facial features, almost bordering on stoicism, which is the trend among Greek statues (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2010). Overall, we can imply that the statue depicts the strength and resilience of the Amazon warrior, that despite being badly wounded, she has risen above her plight with quiet serenity. Created to surround the walls of Artemis temple, it is an idyllic representation of what this goddess exemplifies ferocity and chastity (Coffey 1998).

Looking now at the second marble statue, we can assume that it is a depiction of daily Greek life. Dating from A.D. 14-68, during the Early Imperial Julio-Claudian period of Roman history, it is just 49 58 inches or 125.98 centimeters in height and like the previous statue, it is a Roman copy of a Greek work dating from the second century B.C. The statue depicts an elderly woman, hunched over, carrying a basket of fruit and birds that, we assume, are offerings to be made at one of the many temples found in the ancient world. There is also much attention placed on the garment based on the intricacy of the drapery. But, unlike the first statue whose marble surface is smoothened, great detail is placed the depictions of the anatomy that one can almost see the lines of the muscles and the clavicle as it protrudes from the statues marble skin.

It is also important to note that the woman is freely dressed in a thin garb and sandals. She is also wearing a crown of ivy on her hair, a clear association to the Dionysiac cult. According to legend, women make-up the primary retinue of Dionysus (Otto 175), making this statue a representation of the workings of this cult. Her garment also lends insight into her involvement with this cult. According to the website, older women are given more leeway in terms of their actions, and symbolize the kind of freedom they have from usual gender-related restrictions. At the same time the loose, provocative outfit can also be associated with the unrestrained erotic sensuality that defines Dionysus and his sect. Bearing this in mind, it is now easy to assume why the statue was partially destroyed, with the arms hacked-off and the face chipped. In a time of changing religions, the statue represents paganism and debauchery, two qualities that rising Christianity hoped to repress or eliminate.

It is evident that both statues have similarities and differences. Both are Roman copies of Greek statues, thus providing evidence of the ability of the Romans to adopt the best aspects of civilizations they have conquered, particularly their interest in Greek humanities and art. Both date from the Imperial period of Roman history where the art of creating sculptures was at its height. But, they also differ in height, in the state of their dressing, and the emotion that they depicted. But most importantly, they differ in the aspects of life they are portraying. The first statue focuses on the mythology of Greece and how it translates to art. The second focuses on the daily life of Greek citizens, as imbibed by the Roman population, through its cultural and religious aspects as observed through the liberties and restrictions experience by its women. But, overall, the two statues shed light on how Rome has come to assimilate Greek culture, its ideologies and beliefs, and how they have come to treasure it as their own.

Yet, despite these various similarities and differences, both statues can stand on their own as testaments to the talent that could be found in the ancient world. The cultures that they come from have been, and will continue to be, a source of inspiration to countless generations and countries. This is the true purpose of both statues, and the legacy they have left behind.

Painting is an art which involves application of color on a surface such as canvas, paper, wall, lacquer, etc. Painting can be combined with drawing, composition and several aesthetic features to bring out a unique and beautiful impression. The oldest paintings claimed to be around 32,000 years old can be found at the Grotte Chauvet in France. These pieces of art are painted and engraved using black pigment and red ochre and they depict wild animals such as lions, rhinoceros, buffalos and mammoth. During prehistoric period, men painted animals as a way of catching their sprits in order to hunt them more easily.

What gives painting its allure is the representation and perception of intensity since each and every point of an art contains a different level of intensity. Painting is a fundamental skill which every artist should possess if he wants to produce masterpieces of art. With the start of the industrial revolution in 19th century, many styles of arts and movement were developed reflecting the fast changing pace of the society. Impressionism is the first form of modern art starting in 1800s in France (Klein, 2001). These painters did their work on open ground and analyzed the effects of light on their work. Fauvism is another art style composed of wild and vivid colors. The expressive colors used by these painters produced designs that used a combination of a cluster of pure colors.

Expressionism is a modern form of fauvism used by the Germans and painters used colors of different intensity on their work. Art Nouveau is a modern art which started as a movement in France in early 1990s. It was composed of decorative styles and it covered other forms of art such as furniture architecture, jewelry, and glass. Fine example of this style of painting can be found in subway entrances in France and glass works done by Emile Galle in the U.S. Art Deco movement is a style that succeeded the Art Nouveau and it was more simplified  and concentrated on mass production of artistic products (Klein, 2001). This style was highly dominant in furniture, architecture, fashion, interior decoration and commercial print-making. In New York, the Chrysler building (1930) is a good example showing art deco painting style in architecture.
Cubism is a modern art style that focused basically on painting and sculpture. First developed by Pablo Picasso, a Spaniard, and Georges Braques from France, this painting had a strong background of tribal arts found in Africa. It favored fragmentation and geometrical forms and many features of a single object were shown simultaneously. The father of abstract art was Wassily Kandinsky, a painter born in Russia. He searched for modern forms of visual and spiritual impression. Abstract paintings used bold color and a clear experimentation of depth and tone.

Pop-Art movement is modern style of art which aimed at returning art back to the lives of people. It grew as a reaction to abstract painting which was considered too complicated and sophisticated. Pop artist such as Roy Lichtenstein favored to produce prints which reflected the daily lifestyles of people by use of comics or articles used in advertising. In addition, serigraphy was incorporated, a photo realistic technique of mass production of prints. After entering into the media and advertisement, fine art increased the similarities of fine art and commercial art (Klein, 2001).

Exhibitions usually do not catch the interest of many people, especially the younger generation, partly because they have been associating paintings and sculptures with older people. As a student, I also had the same view prior to visiting the recently opened exhibition. However, my views were changed about these masterpieces especially after seeing the photographs taken by Alfred Duggan-Cronin, which are dramatic and exceptional, to say the least.

Upon entering the exhibition, I noticed that Duggan-Cronin s works stand out among the vast number of masterpieces on display. His photos, despite bearing sepia tones and film-like lines, tell a lot of stories and meanings behind them. His subjects are mostly living things like humans and animals, but he also excels in taking photos of inanimate objects and bringing life to them, including the ever-wonderful nature.

Most of the photographs that he shot include people doing various activities, depicting their lives in Africa and how they deal with getting what they need in order to survive. There are a few shots with people who apparently posed for the camera, but their faces were not really camera-ready, which also says something about their thoughts and emotions.

Duggan-Cronin s way of taking photographs can be compared with the way other travellers take their own shots, especially those who roam around the world and take pictures of different cultures. However, looking closely at the grainy pictures displayed in large wooden frames gave me the idea that Duggan-Cronin wants to show the viewers something else besides the whole dramatic effect of the pictures and how people in South Africa appear to be. There is definitely something more about his works than what meets the eye.

This fact reeled me in for further research regarding the real meaning of Duggan-Cronin s pictures. Upon looking at different books and internet sources, I was able to find out that most of the pictures are meant to depict racism that African people has been experiencing, especially in terms of how people look at them and how they are being treated.

In this paper is a background about Alfred Duggan-Cronin including his style and his views, a look at the racism issue that has been connected to his pictures, and the exhibition as a whole, and the significance of the photographs and masterpieces to the society.

The Striking Photographer
Alfred Duggan-Cronin is of Irish descent, born on the 17th of May, year 1874 by a resident magistrate. He studied at Mount St. Mary s College in Derbyshire, England, and initially planned to become a Jesuit priest in the future. However, he changed his decision and instead went to South Africa (Hart 2009 34).
He initially became a night watchman for the diamond company De Beers located in Kimberely. After some time, he continued his job at a compound hospital until his retirement in 1932. In the year 1904, however, he was able to come back to his homeland, Ireland, where he gained interest in taking photographs with the use of his simple box camera. From then on, he took the camera to South Africa where he took shots of different sceneries and objects (Hart 2009 34).

During the course of his work in De Beers, Duggan-Cronin was able to witness the different faces of the people in South Africa in terms of their way of living and their way of working in order to survive. He was exposed to a lot of situations that helped him understand the reality of African s lives. Using his camera, Duggan-Cronin took shots of these people in both working and traditional clothes (Hart 200935).
Miss Maria Wilman, McGregor Museum s very first director, pushed Duggan-Cronin to continue his project, which was to capture and record the inevitable breakdown of the indigenous way of life in motion picture before everything else. It took a while before an exhibition officially came up in 1921 in Kimberely, and in 1925, the pictures were on display in his home at Kamfersdam (Hart 2009 36).

Later on, his studies and photographs were also exhibited in numerous places outside South Africa, including London, Paris, Durban, and Johannesburg. Moreover, the Cambridge University Press decided to have his photographs published in eleven volumes of books. More and more people became interested with his works, including King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. His success continued until a gallery was named after him in the early 1990s (Hart 2009 36). Up to this day, Duggan-Cronin s works are still regarded as one of the most significant contributions to the study of African racism.

Photographs  Implications
Duggan-Cronin seems to have taken these photographs to show the African s way of living in the perspective of someone who is considered an outsider, since Duggan-Cronin is of Irish descent. However, his close contact with some of the people in Kimberely, as well as working with them, made him one different outsider to the extent that he was allowed to take pictures of them and even their rituals.

One distinct feature of the photos that he had taken would have to be its raw feel in comparison to the some of the artworks and photos in the exhibition. These are the ones that do not have a retouching in terms of implications. The photos with vivid colours are also likely to be considered pieces of art towards the discussion of racism, but theirs are manipulated and are created to imply sarcasm or irony.

Duggan-Cronin s pictures alone would actually elicit normal reactions from the viewers of the masterpieces. However, being paired with other satirical photos dragged these photos towards racism views

To conceive of racism as a natural and virtually inevitable human response to encounters with strangers or aliens is to take the subject outside of history and into the realm of psychology or sociobiology. But if we continue to think of it as a historical construction associated with the rise of modernity and with specific national or international contexts, we have to conclude that it came to a hideous fruition in the century that has just ended. (Frederickson 2002 99)

One implication of the pictures would have to be the fact that Africa, or the people living in Africa, have not been fully touched by the industrial and financial development happening elsewhere outside their continent. There are pictures showing the different rituals that some of them still do up to this day, as well as their ways of preparing their food and spending their afternoons in the fields (See Figure 3). Unlike the rest of the world where different activities have already flourished, Africa remains untouched.

Another thing that makes the photos exceptional would have to be innocence of the African s faces. They seem to be unaware of how people who do not belong to their society perceive them. Based on what the pictures say, the Africans have no pretensions   they are the way they are, personally and photographically. Their way of living stays true to the line what you see is what you get. They are not ashamed of what they are, what they do, and how people see them.

Racism Issue behind the Exhibition
Without a doubt race is a complex issue. The issues of racism are similar to those of colonialism in many ways because colonial powers used doctrines of racial superiority to make their conquest more acceptable in the minds of their populaces  racism is an infused dogma that is often hard for the dominant culture to identify Museum administrators need to watch for this dogma so they do not fall into the same trap as countless others. (Genoways and Ireland 2003 320)

Based on my observations, the artworks in the exhibition are split in half, with the first half giving the African people a better view in the society, and the other half showing a slightly contrasting side, although the latter does not blatantly indicate it. The other works in the exhibition also lean towards racism issues. Some are totally different from how Duggan-Cronin s works are shown. Most of these other pictures attempt to elicit humour and irony in them, particularly the pictures of African women each carrying a chicken with them while sporting a funny face, a white man with a face resembling a black person (known as the Renaissance Man), and even a photo of a black man that resembles Baphomet, the supposedly epitome of evil and Satan.

As I have mentioned earlier, Duggan-Cronin s works would not have alternate meanings if it were not for the other pictures that are displayed in the exhibition. However, these other pictures would still raise the eyebrows of many people with or without Duggan-Cronin s pictures. What makes these pictures controversial is their messages. For instance, the one Renaissance man (See Figure 4) can be interpreted in two ways (1) the white man sympathizes with the black people as he tends his land, which might be because he can see himself as a black person doing a difficult task or (2) the black people are imprisoned in the  body  of  the white people, which means that their thoughts or ideas remain undisclosed and that their actions are controlled by the white people, which can be interpreted as slavery.

The slave of the common Western image is first and foremost a commodity, to be bought and sold and inherited. He is a chattel, totally in the possession of another person who uses him for private ends. He has no control over his destiny, no choice of occupation or employer, no rights to property or marriage, and no control over the fate of his children. He can be inherited, moved, or soled without regard to his feelings, and may be ill-treated, sometimes even killed, with impunity. Furthermore, his progeny inherit his status. (Miers and Kopytoff 1979 3)

In this series of pictures, it can be seen that a person is wearing a black fur-like costume. Clearly, there is one distinct message in here It is the people who give different meanings and interpretations to the races that they do not belong to.  In the first picture, the people seem to be puzzled with what they saw. Of course, everyone will be surprised seeing someone dressed like that in reality. However, we have to keep in mind that some pictures say otherwise. The second and third pictures appears to tell the viewers that black people find their belongingness in animals and nature, and they wish that people will not mind them solely because of their race or their appearance, or even the way white people perceive them. Sadly, there are still some white people who perceive the black people differently and look down on them despite the fact that times have already changed.

Racism is not, like race, a subject the content of which can be scientifically investigated. It is, like a religion, a belief which can be studied only historically. Like any belief which goes beyond scientific knowledge, it can be judged only by its fruits and by its votaries and its ulterior purposes. Of course, when it makes use of facts, racist interpretation can be checked against those facts, and the interpretation can be shown to be justified or unjustified on the basis of history and of scientific knowledge...Any scientist can disprove all its facts and still leave the belief untouched. (Benedict 1983 97)

However, these views of the pictures may or may not represent the views of other people. They may have different interpretations for every picture, so the perceived level of racism in these pictures might vary. People who tend to look at the details of the pictures and artworks might not see the whole racism issue, whereas those who are more inquisitive might have their opinions with regard to racism.

Thus, location and context are important in the expression of racist thoughts and actions. The reaction to racial cures will also depend on what stereotypes are triggered. Many racist stereotypes are so deeply embedded in white consciousness (such as the dangerous-black-man image) that even whites with relatively low levels of racial stereotyping and prejudice may have difficulty in recognizing the role such stereotypes play in their everyday lives. (Feagin, 2001134)

The Bottom Line
The exhibition may be consciously or unconsciously implying racism in the masterpieces displayed. Regardless of this fact, there will still be different views about the pictures, especially if the ones who are taking a look belong to different races or groups. The variation of the works displayed makes it even harder for spectators to come up with a general conclusion on the exhibition.

The white people may either have a positive or a negative remark about the photos, but most of them will definitely steer clear of one thing being involved in the act of racism and other racism practices.
In spite of the painful reality of everyday racism   which time spent in candid discussions with even a few black acquaintances should make clear   most white Americans and many other nonblack Americans insist on denying the reality of antiblack attitudes and discriminatory practices in the contemporary United States. One reason for this is that most whites  lives are racially segregated, and thus they have few substantial or enduring (especially equal-status) contacts with black Americans. Many, if not most, whites never become close enough to their few black acquaintances to have candid and consequential discussions about the racism these acquaintances face. (Feagin and McKinney 2005 7)

The black people, on the other hand, will most likely have a negative view about the pictures of them on the exhibit except that of Alfred Duggan-Cronin s set. Despite the belief that black people only wanted to be treated fairly when racism issues are brought up, the black people also have their own perspectives regarding the issue involving their race A black perspective is more than merely a response to race and racism. It provides a framework for developing an alternative to practice that is based on taken-for-granted assumptions about black people, their culture, needs, and identities (Davies 2008 34).

One thing that the organisers of the exhibition can do to straighten things out would be to explain their goal in showing such artworks and not just tell the viewers what each of the pictures mean. It is given that Alfred Duggan-Cronin s pictures are artistic the way they are, but with the appearance of the other intriguing pictures in the exhibition, the overall purpose became unclear, especially to those people who are very attentive to meanings and semantics. Otherwise, their goal might be mistaken for something else, such as attribution to entertainment purposes The incidence of racist displays at American exhibitions can also be attributed partly to the greater emphasis placed on entertainment (Maxwell 2000 6). Nevertheless, my trip to the exhibition was quite an experience. If not for it, my knowledge about certain racism issues and also the details behind some of the artworks can only go so far. If given the chance, I would like to know more about Duggan-Cronin s works personally from him, but he was already laid to rest almost 50 years ago. The overall feel of his photos make gives me a different view of the natives of Africa, as well as a different look at their lives. The other pictures are also actually interesting and, to be honest, entertaining since they are not obviously made out of boredom. It is a bit difficult to figure out the meaning of some of them, but they are definitely worth researching.

If a still image can speak, it will tell you stories that will capture your imagination. It can describe how the photographer feels when taking the shot it can also explain the emotions by the subjects to which the photograph has been taken, what the ambience of the location was and what the main feelings are during the poses. Even if the subject of the picture is not a living thing, that subject can be brought to life by the amazing shot captured by the master photographer. Composition and lighting have also contributed to the message the image wants us to understand. But then again still images cannot speak...

Which leaves us the viewers create our own perception on what might the photo means. This has led to often wrong conclusions for those uninitiated by what the art offers. An image after being viewed can have different meanings, from different people some are quite far from the truth and others almost grasping it. The one, who really knows it and even feels the work, is the person at the back of the lens.

The aim of this essay is discuss the fundamentals of photography and look into the application of the human body as a subject of a portrait. This study will also discuss the background of two known women photographers that contributed to the amazing world of photography. We will also include analyzing their individual approach in taking images and try to compare them.

Nan Goldin
One artist who really understands and definitely has passion for her work is Nancy Goldin, popularly known as Nan Goldin she is an epitome of an artist who works at the most intimate level her life is her work and her work, her life. It is nearly impossible to talk about Goldins photographs without referring to their subjects by name, as though the people pictured were ones own family and friends. It is this intimate and raw style for which Goldin has become internationally renowned. Her snapshot-esque images of her friends -- drag queens, drug addicts, lovers and family -- are intense, searing portraits that, together, make a document of Goldins life (Anon 2002).

Sally Mann
Another interesting female artist is Sally Mann.  She is known for beautiful and intriguing photographs taken mostly in Black and white. She took pictures with a damaged lens, and a camera that required her to use her hand as a shutter (Natalia 2010). She used an older camera, and a broken lens. Her photographs have distinct imperfections, such as scratches and nicks that showed of her style (same as Natalia 2010).She also became well-known for the controversial photographs of her three children, Jessie, Emmet, and Virginia (Cox 2009).

Photography
Our culture places great importance on the imaginative art of the past, it is sometimes forgotten that one of the most common uses for visual depictions in the centuries before photography  was to copy the observable world and  to communicate visual information in an uninflected manner (Marien 2006). Photography is the process of recording images on sensitized material by the action of light (Collins English Dictionary 2003).
Photography using the camera was introduced to the world during the first decades of the nineteenth century, and it has been able to capture more detail and information than traditional mediums, such as painting and sculpting (Witt, Brown, Dunbar, Tirro, Witt, and Cell 2006). The basic ingredients of photography which is composed of a light-tight box, lenses and light-sensitive substances had been known for hundreds of years before they were combined (same as Marien 2006). There are a lot of usage for photography besides capturing details of specified image, it has, and still being used as a medium to record significant events, portray different lives of people, convey socio-political messages, can also be treated as a diary of the photographer, to capture historical monuments and even used at times for medical purposes. There are a lot of processes that can be applied once an image is captured two of those are images in black and white or monochrome and those with Color. This is dependent on the style of the artist in which process she preferred more.

Human Body as Subject of Photography
Since the late 1980s, an extraordinary number of photographic practices and critical texts have taken the human body as their central subject (Wells 2004). Representations of the human body have become a central part of photographic practice and consequent critical discussion since the 1980s. Numerous issues have driven this  body politics, feminist challenges to the representation of the female body, the AIDS crisis, censorship struggles and the foregrounding of issues around gender and sexuality (Hugh 2009).The words Physiognomy and Phrenology were employed from the mid 19th century onwards as a means of classifying people according to social and racial types, with photography acting as the key enabler of this (same as Hugh 2009). Photography can be used as a way of explaining why we take visual pleasure in looking at pictures of certain things. We have many unconscious fetishes that we use to ward off various fears and anxieties (same as Wells 2004).

Women behind the Lens
Nan Goldins Works
A documentation and reinterpretation of intimate moments between her friends and those she has chosen as her replacement family was basically Goldins early works. During this time she embarked on an enormous portrait of her life, making hundreds of color transparencies of herself and her friends lying or sitting in bed, engaged in sexual play, recovering from physical violence against them, or injecting themselves with drugs (Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc. 1994-2008)

Its just not about the picture Nan Goldin takes, but on how she uses those pictures to create a story and provide is viewers a glimpse of her reality. Her photographs are her lifes records capturing every moment represented on her world. During the 80s she set herself on moving to New York, living in a loft on the Bowery, she immersed herself n that citys underground club and music scene (Garratt 2002). Goldin documented everything drunken parties, relationships good and bad, evidence of beatings, all of which created an intense portrait of a close-knit group of friends only a few galleries at that time ever showed photography, and Nan had modest expectation of earning her bread from her art. She lived cheaply and earned money working in a bar, exhibiting her pictures in underground venues as slide shows set to music (same as Garratt 2002).One of her, if not the most legendary work which was first shown in the clubs of New Yorks artistic society,  is The Ballad of Sexual Dependency (1979-2001). In this Goldins work, she has explained in her introduction the problem of bridging the gender divide, when both male and female are incapable of unconditional love and honest communication (Goldin, Heiferman, Holborn, and Fletcher 1986). It is an illustrative diary chronicling the hardships for intimacy and comprehension between friends and lovers collectively described by Nan Goldin as her tribe.(Koriin n.d.) Pivotal to this piece of work was her own destructive and dependent relationship with a man named Brian(Art Institute Chicago 2006).Photos of Brian shows a character straight out of central casting, the perfect shuffle-footed prison drama junkie punk (Gottschalk 1996). It was also known that Brian would eventually beat her so bad that ended up leaving him (same as Gottschalk 1996).

During the years from 1986 to 1988, Goldin described that those were one of the darkest years in her life, after being nearly battered to death in a hotel room in Berlin by his former lover Brian in which she needed  major surgery in her left eye (same as Gottschalk 1996). She barely took any pictures during that time  and ended up isolated in the Bower loft she lived in with another cruel and sadistic  man, in which she also stated that he was not her lover but a fellow comrade  in drugs who makes her life more miserable (same as Gottschalk 1996). By 1988, Goldins drug and alcohol abuse had begun to take a toll on her life and work, and she entered a detoxification clinic. Though she had previously experimented with self-portraiture, it was in this clinic that she created many images of herself. Photographs such as My Bedroom at the Lodge, Self-portrait in front of clinic, and Self-portrait with milagro reveal an introspective Goldin, somewhat humbled by her experiences at the hospital (same as Anon 2002).

It was not just the detoxification clinic that have changed Nans focus, it was also the moment that here friends were struggling with their battle of an infamous disease AIDS. Perhaps most important of these friends was Cookie Mueller, a friend since 1976, the year in which Goldin started photographing her. Goldins series, entitled The Cookie Portfolio, is comprised of 15 portraits of Cookie, ranging from those taken at the parties of their youth to those from Cookies funeral in 1989 (The Art Institute of Chicago 2006). During the next few years, Goldin continued to photograph her slowly dwindling circle of friends, many of whom were afflicted with AIDS ( same as Anon 2002). She showed these photographs in many group exhibitions across the country and around the world and spent a year in Berlin on a DAAD grant, sponsored by a German organization that brings artists to Berlin ( Art Directory n.d.).  Her photographs now are focused on investigating issues of Drug addiction and recovery, the effects of AIDS, and the reconstruction of personal identity and community (Naggar 1992).

Sally Manns Works
Sally Mann often sketches out her ideas for photographs before shooting. This leads her viewers to presuppose that Mann considers the symbolism of her work, adding depth to each image. Mann also prefers to work with antique black and white film cameras because she values the imperfections that are inherent in older photography methods. Each photograph Mann takes has a character and an approach that is distinctly Sally Mann (same as Cox 2002).

The Collection Immediate Family was composed of images taken from 1984 to 1991 detailed the complex childhoods of her three children Emmet, Jessie and the youngest, Virginia (Osbourne 2006). Sally Manns first picture of any of her children was inspired when her daughter came home from a friends house covered in gnat bites, giving her a swollen face (Woodward 2007). It was called The Damaged Child. It became an obsession for Mann, when she realized that she had perfect subjects to photograph living in her own house (same as Cox 2002). It was a disturbing image for the public as it was perceived by them that the child in the picture may actually have been abused (same as Woodward 2007).

Another Black and white image of a young boy holding what it seemed to be skinned squirrels in her photograph entitled Squirrel Season. It is an interesting contrast for a child to hold corpses. Children relate to death in different ways that adults do, because often the concept is strange to them. The idea captures their imagination but it is likely that the concept is not quite as terrifying because many young children are not aware of their own mortality (same as Cox 2002).As Sally Mann, continues on her thought provoking images of her children another work came up The Wet Bed, the expressive vulnerability of Manns toddler daughter asleep in The Wet Bed conjures an image of a specific compounding of the unrestrained, responsive physiological body with the presence of the child as a sovereign being, as Life. (Moul n.d.) It again raised controversy as it has conveyed the message of child pornography (Osbourn 2006). The controversy that Immediate Family stirred up is a direct reflection of the times in which it was produced, and says more about the adult viewer than of the child subject. Sally Mann chooses to explore the concept of childhood and growing up using a variety of the sensual, reality and the fantastic all through a maternal eye.(same as Osbourn 2006).

Mann shifted her camera away from her children  and has undertaken  a different kind of project.Manns initial project dealing with themes of mortality and decay began with the death of her pet dog Eva, whom she photographed in various stages of decomposition. After photographing Eva, Mann began several other projects that hinged on topics of mortality. Her work led her to accompany New York Times reporter Kathy Ryan on a tour of the University of Tennessee Forensic Anthropology Facility where the decomposition of human bodies is studied, and to photographically document the stages of decay of human bodies. Manns new work, which is collected in a five part project called What Remains, is a gritty meditation on the mechanics and aesthetics of mortality (Museum of Contemporary Photography 2010).

Compare and Contrast
Both Goldin and Manns inspiration for their photographs has always come from their surroundings. They mutually capture both spontaneous portraits and at times orchestrate pre-planned sittings. They also both love to explore the boundaries of what is and what is not acceptable when it comes to portraying their work of art. They both chronicle the lives of their own families and its particular stages. Using the human body they have created controversial images that have raised eyebrows of majority of the public, portraying nude human bodies on majority of their photographs. They also at one point photographed human bodies in state of suffering, Nan Goldins dying friend from AIDS, and Sally Manns husband suffering from muscle dystrophy on her image entitled Hephaestus (same as Museum of Contemporary Photography 2010).

In contrast, although the two ladies behind the lens both apply the human bodies as subject of their work, their style and process are quite different. Starting from the developed images, Nan Goldin usually likes to apply color to enhance the images structure, while Mann preferred monochrome photography or black and white more often on her photos because she values the imperfections that are inherent in older photography methods (same as Cox 2009). Both may have different results depending on the viewer, but on these artists their work resembles its own meaning. Nan Goldin during her early works may have conveyed the message of the human body going through different levels of pleasure and excitement, from drugs, sex and the emotions from music which are essentially real. Sally Mann, on the other hand using the frail bodies of her kids is trying to show us the sensuous and sometimes disturbing side of childhood (same as Osbourn 2006), but of which only tells a story of fiction and not really what majority of the viewers perceived as offensive. Nan based on her works, doesnt really intend to shock her audience, she just wants to show her reality, but on Sally, she seemed to be oblivious to the controversy in her photographs and really wants to incite strong reactions from her viewers.

Synopsis
Pornography and Art can be confusing to a lot of us, especially if images we see can be interpreted by our own understanding. Nan Goldin and Sally Mann may have been two of the most controversial photographers in the photography industry. Both created provocative images depicting the human body in different forms that caused quite an outrage in the public eyes. For Nan Goldin, she is just basically telling a story of the stages on her life and her photos portray those moments captured, may it be offensive to some but for her it was real and it happened at some point in time in her life. For Sally Mann, she captured images which may have been extremely interesting and intriguing probably to test the perception of the majority, but for her a lot of her images convey fictions, her subjects playing out an act to disrupt viewers notions on borderline reality. In the end Nan Goldin said it best Perversity is in the eye of the beholder. Children are born without a fear of sexuality or a fear of their own bodies. That fear is imposed on them. Children are sensual beings, they touch and they like to be touched. Its the adult who sometimes takes advantage of this situation.

Its not about what the children in an image are doing and theres nothing sick about a nude child. Its so ridiculous we treat this as a problem in society. Its one of the joys of life, the human body (2008).

The art world experienced a much needed breath of fresh air in the period known as Art Nouveau. This style of art was prevalent from about 1890 through 1910. Characteristics of this new style of art were free flowing lines, lush enameling, the celebration of the curves and lines of the human form and natural beauty including flowers and insects and animals. There was a certain freedom in this elegant art form. Prior to what we now refer to as Art Nouveau, there was a certain dreary strictness in art due to the restraints of the Victorian period. Heavily ornamented diamonds and restrictive designs were standards in the Victorian era. A few pioneers sought to establish a new way of looking at art and design. At the time Art Nouveau was emerging, the Industrial Revolutions machines were creating a din that threatened to annihilate cottage industries. But, although machines could mass produce, they couldnt replace the hands of the most sought-after artisans. The newly rich and the older moneyed class alike still sought after finery that could only be created by a master, not a machine.

The Art Nouveau awakening imposed very few rules on its creators. Artisans were free to create with graceful lines and curves and take their imaginations into flights of fancy. Though the Art Nouveau movement covered all areas of art from sculpture to painting to glasswork to architecture and furniture, we will take a walk here through Art Nouveau jewelry.

Although many periods in jewelry history have influenced the styles that came after them, few have had more dramatic and long-lasting influence than Art Nouveau jewelry. Its genius was in its elaborate simplicitythe taking of an everyday form such as a dragonfly or lizard and turning it into a masterpiece. Its effects are still felt today in the popularity and duplication of pieces that first arrived on the scene at the turn of the century.

The Art Nouveau artist believed that every art was major art, for it implied a sense of responsibility and called upon the greatest creative talent a craftsman possessed. (Barilli, p70) Among these, in the jewelry niche, were Ren Lalique, Peter Carl Faberg, Georges Fouquet, Paul and Henri Vever, Louis Comfort Tiffany and Henri Van de Velde. Their names have become synonymous with the Art Nouveau movement in jewelry.

LALIQUES INFLUENCE
Lalique, was one of the most prominent and gifted artisans whose work still inspires today. He was a French goldsmith influenced in part by the flowing and uncomplicated designs found in Japanese artwork. Lalique worked not only in metals but also in glass. His designs fetch enormous prices at auction today and are installed in some of the most highly-respected museums around the globe.

Lalique was a visionary and perhaps single-handedly raised the occupation of jeweler to master artisan status. He set out to please an elite class of patrons whose tastes could only be satisfied with the type of finery royalty would aspire to. Among his designs were dreamy, tall, willowy women who often sprang butterfly wings, dragonflies and flowers like lilies, ginkgo leaves, and irises. Nature and its beauty were recurring themes in his work.

Casting and carving gold were two of Laliques talents, but he was also a master of enameling. This became the hallmark of Art Nouveau jewelry. The enameling was done by hand and so reflected the skill level of the artisan. The effect was that each enameled piece looked like a three-dimensional painting. The type of enameling used most often was known as Plique ajour. Plique ajour is defined as enameling that is transparent with no backing. The effect most often achieved by Plique ajour enameling is likened to that of stained glass. (httpwww.artnouveaujewelry.net, 2010). These enameled birds seem to be mid-flight holding their gold and diamond branch. A true departure from the staid and serious pieces of times before.

Another superb example of Laliques use of nature, enameling, and graceful forms is found in his piece shown below, Pendentif Coqs.(Museum of Decorative Arts, 2010)  Lalique crafted this piece between 1901 and 1902 and it is done in gold, sapphire and diamond with rich blue enameling. He uses animals, here two cocks facing each other head on and a center cabochon of star sapphire encrusted with diamonds. He gracefully carves two feathers  and enamels them by hand. This was a huge departure from the Victorians in that it has a lightness of form and a playfullness they would never have included.

Many think of  Lalique as the inventor of modern jewelry. His creations helped usher in a movement that jewelry designers today are still trying to emulate. The Museum of Decorative Arts houses one of the largest collections of Lalique jewelry.

In stepping away from the heavy jewelry that was all the rage once diamond mines were opened in South Africa, Lalique began a new trend. Lalique used not only colored precious stones but also the humbler semiprecious ones and even carved glass, either colored or iridescent and opaque. (Battersby, p 22) What before was seen as the essential displays of ostentatious wealthdiamonds, rubies and emeraldswere now being replaced by semiprecious stones and glass. Could glass rival a diamond In Laliques hands it could. Prior to the Art Nouveau period, stones were chosen for their importance and purity. Now, under Laliques influence, materials were not used merely for their intrinsic value but for their chromatic possibilities. (Gregorietti, p286). Did it catch the light in a certain way Then Lalique would use it. Shocking

This Art Nouveau profile brooch with Plique a jour enamel, peridot, hessanite and gold is a fine
example of the work of Lalique. He used stones that the traditional Victorian design houses prior would not have considered using and he paints his enamel on with a delicate hand that results in a masterpiece of portrait quality.

CONTEMPORARIES OF LALIQUE
Although Lalique was a genius and frontrunner in the Art Nouveau jewelry design movement, he was in good company. Other fine designers emerged and contributed greatly to the ethereal pieces that survive today. This piece below, Sylvia, by Paul and Henri Vever is one of the most exquisite examples of the Nouveau celebration of the human form. It would have been an upper-class lady of privilege who would have worn this privately commissioned piece.

Finery has also survived from this period in the works of Faberg, who rose to fame for not only his jewelry designs but his royal decorated eggs as well. Men like Georges Fouquet, Louis Comfort Tiffany and Henri Van de Velde also made important contributions the movement that celebrated art for arts sakeart that was not to be categorized into high art or crafts. It is ironic that although the Art Nouveau movement celebrated art that was accessible to everyone with few restrictions and all inclusive, only the very wealthy would have been able to afford it at the time.

THE DEMISE OF AN ERA
Abruptly with the inception of World War I the Art Nouveau movement fell out of favor. It gave way to what would be called the Modernist style. Materials and metals became scarce and lifestyles changed. And, as in every age, new artists enter the scene with different ideas. Now, the flowery beauty of the woman would give rise to Cubism and Artists like Picasso and Matisse would have a very different view of the human form. Although the Art Nouveau period only enjoyed a few decades of fame, its influences are still present to this day. Art Nouveau will always be with us.