Art

Botticellis The Annunciation is considered a magnum opus hailing from the Italian Renaissance Period. The painting, on the whole, shows Mary kneeling in homage to the winged herald, who himself is slightly stooping in subtle reverence to the Mother of Christ. Portrayed as directly face to face along a straight line, the two subjects are practically mirror images of each other. Aside from the majesty of the depiction itself, the skilful use of linear perspective in its classical Roman architectural setting continues to enchant and inspire tourists of the Metropolitan Museum of Art where it is presently displayed. To further deepen our appreciation of this work of genius, an analysis of its form, content, and context is needed.   As a final point, a comparison shall be made with another piece of art.

Form
The Annunciation is tempera and gold on wood. To make it suitable as a canvass, the wood panel is first smoothened by sanding. Then tempera and gold come in to create color. Tempera was the principal painting medium during the Renaissance before it was superseded by oil painting. Produced by crushing pigments and combining them with traditional binding agents such as egg or honey, tempera allowed paintings of this era to endure with their colors as vibrant as they were more than five hundred years ago. Their colors are still fresh and crisp to this day. By the water gliding technique, on the other hand, gold is applied to the wooden surface (Ward 234). Icon paintings such as The Annunciation are primarily testimonies to this technique.

One of the most notable innovations during the Italian Renaissance, of which this painting is a perfect example, is the use of linear perspective (Burn 105). The concepts of space and distance began to be developed and appreciated. The viewer recognizes the spatial illusion in the succession of pillars, which seem to be getting smaller as they stretched out toward a hall or vestibule. The reddish floor of the hallway where the angel stands, divided at intervals by strips of white also exhibits linear precision. Even with a row of pillars at the center separating Mary and the angel, the viewer is aware that both are in one enclosed room.  The very application of this technique makes this painting one of the jewels of 15th century Italian art, embodying the achievements that made Florence so famous and influential (Burn 105).

Content
A Christian commemoration, the Annunciation is when the Angel Gabriel visited the Blessed Virgin Mary to reveal to her Gods divine plan of making her the Mother of Jesus. The Holy Bible narrates the Annunciation beginning with the Angel Gabriel greeting Mary. Hail, favored one The Lord is with you (Luke, 129). Behold you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you shall name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called son of the Most High (Luke 131). Ever the pious servant of the Lord, Mary responds, Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord. May it be done to me according to your word (Luke 1 38).

The most famous subjects of Christian iconography, aside from Jesus, are angels and the Blessed Virgin Mary. And the most celebrated episode in Marys life is the Annunciation. In The Annunciation, Mary is in red and blue robes. These colors are oftentimes associated with the concepts of royalty, purity, passion and suffering. Blue is also the color of heaven or divinity, red the color of earth or flesh, so we may say that the blue mantle of divine grace surrounds Marys body (Schrauzer 36). Another iconographic symbol is the branch of lilies being offered by the Angel Gabriel to Mary. The image of this flower is popularly found in Annunciation paintings. The lily, being sparkling and white, has evolved into a Marian symbol of chastity and purity  virtues that Mary epitomizes.  The Lily of the Valley and the Lily among the thorns, phrases found in Song of Solomon (22),are allusions to Mary. Interestingly enough, contrary to typical illustrations of the Annunciation where the Angel Gabriel is depicted full of vigor, with wings gloriously spread open and standing or floating on clouds in an intimidating fashion, Botticellis interpretation is more tempered. In his painting, we see both the Angel Gabriel and Mary in submissive and meek postures. As the compliant bearing of Mary is expected, the uncommon version of a self-effacing Angel Gabriel may be a representation of the Christian veneration to the Mother of God. The veneration, as opposed to the worship of Mary, is a practice that in either case, seems to entitle her with a demigod status.

Context
The illustrations of the Madonna are innumerable in Christian Art. During the Renaissance, artists like their predecessors of the Medieval Age, continued to create art for the Christian Church. Patronage was received mostly from the church, if not from leading citizens of the time, such as the Medici of Florence. Being both a highly authoritative religious institution and a powerful business enterprise, the Church commissioned paintings of biblical scenes to further expand and strengthen its European influence.

The Renaissance was an era when the Church had a virtual monopoly of visual art. It was propaganda primarily intended for the illiterate followers who did not know how to read scripture, or who were considered too unsophisticated for sacred doctrines. Religious paintings were displayed on churches as murals, frescoes or triptychs (3-panelled paintings). Eventually though, devout Catholics who had money to spare began emulating the Church by contracting with renowned artists to create religious paintings for their own personal collection. The prosperous citizens of the day carried the conviction that commissioning religious paintings was pleasing to God. Religious painting was therefore an alternative form of praise. The Church also fostered the belief that by sponsoring religious art, these people will be guaranteed a ticket to heaven. Some of these private patrons even succumbed to their vanity by immortalizing themselves in the said paintings. They are usually seen in the corner kneeling or praying. Botticellis The Annunciation was almost certainly commissioned as a private devotional image, not as part of a larger structure. While the identity of the patron is not known, the work was in the famed Barberini collection in Rome in the seventeenth century.

A distinctive feature of the Renaissance was the resurrection of classic Roman architecture in paintings. The renewed interest in all things ancient began in Italy where artistic remains of Roman grandeur were interpreted as archaeological testimony to a period of  national greatness and unity (Renaissance Art and Architecture 386). The majestic pillars, graceful windows, and arched doorways found in Botticellis The Annunciation are of classical Roman Architecture.

Comparison
Robert Campins Merode Altarpiece, created around 1427-1432, serves as the object of comparison to Botticellis The Annunciation. Renowned for its meticulous attention to detail, superb imagery, and brilliant colors, Campins triptych handiwork is regarded as one of the most highly acclaimed paintings of the Netherlands, earning him the moniker, Master of Flemalle (Master of Flemalle 387).  Currently located at the Cloisters Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the central panel showcases the Annunciation in a conventional Flemish middleclass setting. The left panel shows the kneeling patrons while St. Joseph, busy working in his carpentry shop, is on the right panel. The painstaking application of even the subtlest of details, as evident in the wood chips on St. Josephs table and the airborne miniature crucifix in Marys room, seals Campins reputation as a genius just like Botticelli.

Both of the Italian Renaissance Period, Campins masterpiece is older by around 60 years. While both used wood as canvass, Campins medium for painting is oil, while that of Botticelli are tempera and gold. Several symbols are also evident in both works  the lilies, the blue and red robe of Mary and the deferential disposition of the Angel Gabriel. Another similarity is the use of linear perspective. While we see this in the floor and pillars of Botticellis work, the town sentry standing far behind the patron-couple, the outlying panorama of a city square being framed by the window of St. Josephs carpentry shop, and the wooden beams of Marys room, are the very features in Campins painting that provide the illusion of space and distance.

Beautiful by any standard, and a timeless Marian masterpiece, Botticellis The Annunciation continues to stir artistic, intellectual and religious fervor.

Since the beginning of the existence of civilizations, people have been engaged in creating something that would help them make their lives better. From the creation of early tools that made life easier to the invention of weapons to protect themselves from their enemies, there has been a diversity of works that is still used today. Simultaneous to the creation of these tools was the conceptualization of aesthetics, an ideology of what is good to the eye and what is not, or what is beautiful and what is not. From these idealizations people became more creative and are pulled more towards creating and inventing something that is beautiful and has some significance and value to themselves, and it is now what we call art.

Art is the combination of elements such as space, line, shape, texture and colour. When these elements are combined correctly, it would result to something that is beautiful. Art has been part of the history, from the Mesopotamians who created the first known written script to the various works of art created by world-renowned artists like Felippo Brunelleschi, Massacio, Jan Van Eycke, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Some of the most popular works of art are created by the ancient Romans. They have been able to establish themselves in Europe, overthrowing the Greeks as the centre of power. And as the centre of power, they are famous in practically every aspects of human life, including art.

Rome was said to be founded by Romulus and Remus, the famous twins of the ancient civilization (Ruhl 5). The city grew from a small village to a city that is known for its great and powerful rulers. Bandinelli stated that its social structure was divided into two the elite which are comprised of people with great economic and political status like Emperors, Lords and Senators and non-elite that includes peasants, farmers and artisans, which comprises the majority of the population (Center 13). Each of the two classes has their own view on various works of art.

Painting is one of the most popular work of art. A large collection of artifacts can be attributed to Pompeii and Herculaneum, preserved after Mount Vesuvius eruption in 79 A.D. Most of these paintings were made in secco style but some are also made using fresco style. Many Roman paintings served as interior design. But some of these artworks were found to be copies of early Greek art. Only about 200 years worth of paintings were preserved out of Romes 900-year history. Paintings feature various types of themes from different subjects and even scenes from their daily lives. One of the themes that the Romans became interested of is landscape. The basic forms of landscapes used were that of nature, usually gardens with beautiful flowers and trees. Some landscape paintings showed fields and terrains as viewed from the top of a hill or a view from the mansions up above the level of ground. Other landscapes that were painted were the architectural ingenuity of the Roman engineers, buildings and structures that were made to depict Romes greatness (Bandinelli Late 87). Roman painters also became interested in painting the portraits of famous Roman figures like Emperors, men from the Roman military and people with great intellectual achievements. This has become the major themes used by the Romans throughout their paintings.

One of the most interesting landscape paintings is the Boscotrecase painted by Pompeii. It shows a scene from an elevated portion of land with some people and animals, a tree at the center, and at the background were different buildings and structures of the Roman Empire standing up high the hills. The painting Boscoreale, a scene of a royal place during the height of the Roman Empire showing the pillars and supports made of gold and ivory, and the leaf that became the symbol of the Emperors, also became one of the paintings that showed the wealth of the Roman Empire. Another elite painting made was showing Giuseppe Garibaldi defending Rome against the French attack, showing the strength of the Roman army. The Severan Tondo, painting of the imperial family, is one good example of Roman portraiture. The Romans of the elite class viewed paintings with great passion. For them, looking at these paintings serves as a form of relaxation, finding pleasure in every piece presented in front of them. They look at every aspect of the piece. Every detail of the painting will affect on how the elites would view each masterpiece (Clarke 41). For them, paintings are means of showing and maintaining their superiority and authority. Paintings are used to have a picture of what they have done and what they have achieved, just like a triumphal painting which shows victories of the Emperors and leaders against their enemies to gain more compliments and recognition (Clarke 18). It also serves as a reminder of their heroic acts. They also view painting as a way to release all the thoughts they have in mind. To some elites, finding a perfect place is the first step to making an incredible piece of art. It allows them to find the subject that is best fitted with their thoughts. Others based their thoughts on their past experiences. Paintings brought them a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction (Clarke 19). Because of these factors, the elite have had a positive view on painting as an art.

Due to the social structure of ancient Rome, the elites are the ones more drawn to painting. They are the ones more capable of doing an artwork and enjoying it. The non-elite, on the other hand, are not much drawn to these things. They have little opportunity to engage in such works. They focus more on doing what they do best- working hard for themselves and for their landlords and surviving the fate of their class. The non-elites view paintings as an expression of their feelings and ideas, ideas that they cannot directly enunciate to their superiors, especially the elites. Paintings also became a means of showing the real situation of the lower class, especially their sufferings. It has also become an indirect expression of the real events that happen to the non-elites, especially those who have the talent of painting but are not brave enough to prove their points. At some point in time, these reasons gave non-elites gave non-elites the ideology to assert power, to rise from the grave (Clarke 168). But these ideas were only dreams. They have no way to overpower their great leaders. Like the elites, the non-elites view paintings as a reminder of what their leaders have achieved for their Empire.

Romans are also known for their sculptures with great details and complexity. These 3-dimensional artworks are usually carved out of marble, a hard crystalline metamorphicrock which is also used as a building material. Creating a sculpture takes time and it needs great concentration. A great imagination of the subject, usually an image of a man, is also needed to create a good visual art. Most of the Roman sculptures, like paintings, are sculptures of Gods, famous philosophers and scientists, and great leaders. Most of the great leaders are Generals and Kings  the people who made great steps in making Rome a powerful and invincible city. The most famous of these sculptures were that Diocletianus, Julius Caesar, Nero, Remus and Romulus. Some of the sculptures show the whole body while others show only the head. Other sculptures were the Roman Gods and Goddesses, like Venus, Neptune, Pluto, Jupiter and Vulcan. They were representative of the Roman Empires great power and rich history. Although a few of sculptures came from the non-elite class, majority of Roman sculpture came from the elite class. Sculptures symbolize power, bravery, courage and knowledge, and there are no other people more powerful, brave, courageous and knowledgeable than the elite class. One of the known Roman sculpture is that of Augustus. The sculpture shows Augustus holding a spear and standing straight implying that he is a powerful emperor and that every Roman should bow to him. This has become the common representation of a sculpture. An Emperor is not known for his contributions to the majority of the population. He has become a symbol of corruption and violence. But Constantine, on the other hand, was not known for his violent rule  an attitude not common to Roman Emperors. He was recognized for his contributions to Christianity, especially his efforts to spread the religion throughout the city (Wilie 10).

Even tombs are important works of art. They are carved out of special materials to lengthen its life span. These tombs, like the tombs of Egyptian leaders, are meant to last to let later generations know of their greatness, power and achievements. Another interesting theme of Roman sculpture is a battle scene. One of the most noticeable is the Column of Trajan  a column of 2500 individual parts connected together to demonstrate how mighty the Romans are. It also showed early Roman military equipments and costumes- the basics in a military warfare. This artwork has become one of the greatest treasures of the ancient world.
On the other hand, the non-elite class view these sculptures as a sign of social discrimination. Since the elite class were the ones more exposed, they are the ones who became famous and gain others respect. Only the elite have the right and the opportunity to let their faces or their body be carved out of special materials to symbolize themselves. The non-elite also view this type of artwork as a sign of injustice. People were given unequal opportunity to do things they deserve. They live in a place and time where only the rich and the famous grab it all. Some of the known Roman sculptures were damaged during the fall of Rome. But some surviving sculptures, through the efforts of preservationists, were preserved and are now in good hands. It can usually be seen in museums and art galleries throughout Italy and the whole Europe.

Another important contribution of the Romans is their works on architecture. It is in this field that the Romans produced a variety of innovations. Since the Romans were able to capture many cities and urbanized areas, Roman engineers were able to find new methods in building structures in a large scale (Hodge 45). Huge structures like the Parthenon and the Colosseum cannot be created using the previous methods of building. Concrete was the material that became the foundation of every building erected throughout the city. Roman engineers were able to maximize the use of the material due to its availability, high strength and low cost. The use of arches and domes also enabled Roman engineers to create more complex structures. It gave those structures more space and allowing more audience. Examples of these structures were the  Pantheon, the  Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. These creations of early Roman engineers became the inspiration of Italian architects of the Renaissance. Roman structures are also built with great details and complexity like their sculptures. Every structure was designed according to its purpose. One good example was the Colosseum. The purpose of the structure is for entertainment (Clarke 153). It was used for circus shows. It was the place for mock battles and the place where the famous gladiators fought for their lives. The building is for the general audience. The elite and non-elite class were able to attend at the venue and be entertained by the entertainers. It was for pure entertainment. It satisfied every Romans taste for pleasure and fun. They even forgot about the importance of life. Their acts do not satisfy their cardinal virtues  wisdom, justice and reason. They forgot about the importance of life. Even Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus was able to enjoy the majesty of the structure he ordered to be built. The peak of Roman architecture came at the time of Trajan (98  117 A.D.) and Hadrian (117-138 A.D.). Due to Romans ingenuity and the availability of materials, Roman structures became so effective that it lasted so long and some of those structures can still be seen today.

One of the most enormous productions of the Roman art is pottery- a craft of moulding ceramic from clay and baking it in a kiln. Roman pottery can be found anywhere in the Roman Empire and even beyond its boundaries. Monte Testacciois is rich in amphorae, a jar with two handles and a narrow neck, mainly used in storing liquids like wine and oil which is the main fuel for lighting. Mainly, Roman pottery is of fine composition. The most common of these is the red gloss ware, or terra sigillata. It has a glossy, red finish usually serving as a table pottery. But some of the elite class used silver or gold as the material to be symbols of their wealth and fame. Expensive potteries, the type of Roman elite class, are copied from the original metal works and are mainly used for decorative purposes (Hodge 98).

Potteries of the non-elite class were commonly made locally and with inferior quality. They are often referred to as coarse ware because it relatively consists of large particles and lack or refinement thus making it rough to touch. But somehow, non-elites are able to create pottery, like the oil lamps, with great refinement became a common tool used by the Romans.

Another art that the ancient Romans became interested in is mosaic. Mosaic is an art of making a design out of small materials with different colours, usually stones or glasses. Romans have always been interested in combining materials to form interesting looks and patterns. They have been said to create the most perfect of ancient potteries anywhere in the world. Sandstone in the beaches has been the fascination of young Romans and from these materials they create something that would look like a mosaic. The walls of some Roman houses have been embedded with small pieces of stone.

Elite Romans find mosaic as a hobby and a form of relaxation. Some of them used mosaic for decorative purposes. The non-elite class mainly used pottery as a form of income-generating work. They sell their creations to the rich in exchange for money or gold or any type of precious metal. Its another way for them to survive. But generally, Romans find mosaic as attractive and pleasing to the eyes.

Art has played a vital role in the evolution of the Roman Empire. In its 900- year history, Romans were able to establish themselves not only through war but also through art. It symbolized its history, from the type of clothes they wear, the utensils they used, to the sculptures of themselves and the tombs their bodies were laid when they died. Roman art has become one of the foundations of various works of art of modern times. Though most of the Roman arts were copied from the Greeks, many of the known artworks today were proved to have originated from the Romans. The conception of art has also become a philosophy. Ideals of every artist have some relation with his ideologies. The most important contribution of art is that it has symbolized Roman existence and made Rome as the centre of power.

Elite and non-elite Romans came from the same ancestors with same race and same culture. But their views on the different works of art, the elites who are those with perfect lives, with all the power and might and the authority they had in mind, for them, works of art are important because this is their way of showing the things they have done and achieved just to show how great they are. For them, works of art are simply a means to maintain their authority. But for the non-elites, works of art play an important role in their lives because this is an avenue to sustain their lives. For them, works of art is life because without these various works of art, they will never be able to show their superiors what they have been and what they are still going through. But the most important thing is that even though they differ in social, economic and political status, they view works of art with great sentiment and passion.

An Analysis of Gender in Two Portraits
When thinking of the Renaissance, one would immediately perceive of major economic, political, and social transformations that produced ideological changes that shifted the whole perspective of the world. And at the very epicentre of this transformation is fifteenth-century Italy, the then international hub of active mercantilism and modern thinking. According to eminent Renaissance scholar Jacob Burckhardt, whose iconic book The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy (1890) has paved the way to further analysis of the Italian Renaissance, there has been a great deal of influence from Classical Greek culture found in the tenets of the Renaissance in the fourteenth to fifteenth century (1890 176). But all these critical advances, many modern feminists think, only revolve within the realm of men. As Joan Kelly-Gadol asks in her essay (1977), did women have a Renaissance Consequently we ask, then, how is gender generally represented during this important era in our history.

To gain some insight into this we look into the two diptych portraits of Federico da Montefeltro and his young wife Battista Sforza, considered the epitomes of their genders ideals, as rendered by famous Italian painter and mathematician Piero della Francesca. Despite a non-traditional approach in depicting the male and female relations in the paintings, the works are still manifestations of the gender ideals set and followed by the Italian Renaissance society. The portraits, seen as the Triumph of Federico or the Male Ego and the Triumph of Chastity (Branciforte 1986 3), present what Renaissance society believe as the ultimate achievement of each gender. In this paper, we shall analyse how this is depicted in the paintings and, therefore gain understanding into the dynamics of gender during the Renaissance.

Gender in Portraiture An Analysis
Before we delve into the analysis of the della Francesca portraits, we must first understand the importance of portraiture in Renaissance society and how it is a perfect medium to comprehend the dualistic quality of the gender relations in these times. It was during this period that naturalistic portraiture found its rebirth after a partial hiatus during the medieval. Unlike in previous eras, Renaissance portraiture aimed to achieve a physiognomic depiction of the identity of the living or once living person (Woodall 19971). Portraits should be seen, not simply as accurate depictions of the subject, but as allegories of the person (Berger 1994 90). Harry Berger, Jr., in his essay Fictions of the Pose Facing the Gaze of Early Modern Portraiture, says that portraits only pretend to portray and are in fact symbols of what their sitters represent their status, achievements, moral principles. The sitter is construed as the passive site of revelation, perhaps unaware that the painter is extracting the true nature from the appearance...This makes the portrait an epitome of the sitters character as it was generally manifested in the life reflected from the archive (1995 89). The painter, as the general eye of the public, then portrays these ideal qualities through his observation of the subjects (Berger 1994 85).

Berger suggests that we analyse these allegorical qualities following these four strands of commentary
 a) on the sitters social, political, andor professional status, and on his or her character, personality, inner being, moral quality, and state of mind (mood and emotion, gli affetti)
b) on the painters characterization and the means by which he produces it
c) on the sitters pose and appearance as the medium of characterization
d) on the archival data that provided the information used to confirm or fill out interpretations of a), b), and c)--historical information (or speculation) about the lives, behaviour, and practices of sitters and painters. (1994 87-89)

With these in mind and our archival understanding of Renaissance history, we can conclude that with the Renaissance pursuit for the ideal placed at a high regard, these portraits can be seen as templates that are supposedly looked up and followed by the immediate society.

In this sense, Renaissance portraiture can be seen as the symbolical representation of the gender dynamics found during that era. Every colour from the painter and every pose from the subject or the sitter are descriptive of what society perceives of them which is why there is a clear illustration of the dynamics of gender in portraits. Women were shown either as highly decorated, a semblance of the court ladies whose personification is associated to that of their husbands, or as pure, innocent virgins, on the throes of a proper marriage. Some are also portrayed in sombre clothing, showing womens inherent position within the household. As Kelly-Gold mentions, these distinctions present the inferior domestic realm from which women come from, as compared to the senior public realm dominated by men, an image that shows the domestic imprisonment of women of that era (1977 141). Chastity, docility, and obedience characterize this domestic realm, while political and military power portrayed the public realm of men.

Nowhere is this dichotomy of standards more evident that in the portraits of Federico and Battista. Commissioned in the 1470s when Federico was in his fifties, it can be regarded as his tribute to his wife after her most unexpected death, months after the birth of their only son. The portrait, ideally placed side by side, depicts the husband and wife facing each other, their faces a mask of serenity, holding a stoic gaze amidst a background of blue skies, green mountains, and a quaint lakeside community. Unlike other portraits, these show the subjects magically suspended above the lands, as if in dominance of them.

Federico is depicted as a stocky man, with rugged, dark skin marked by warts. Despite this worn appearance, della Francescos depiction of the Duke of Urbino was already improved as compared to other paintings by Flemish painters. He did not erase the distinguishing qualities of the mans face to stay true to his natural appearance but he smoothened out the lines and drooping skin that is evident in other portraits of Federico. Thinking along the lines of Federicos vast military and political achievements, he depicted the Duke in such a way that it symbolized his outstanding reputation. With his figure above that of the rural background (a depiction, perhaps, of the dukedom of Urbino) illustrates his looming power over the land. Unlike homely interpretations of his face, this in particular, emanates with sincerity and judiciousness felt from the eyes to the relaxed mouth, portraying none of the aggressiveness that is historically attributed to him. The right side of his face is also unconventionally hidden by depicting him in a profile, a pose usually attributed to women, in order to hide a battle scar and blinded eye that he had incurred during one of his military exploits. And despite permitting the extraction of his upper nose bridge to allow for better vision through is left eye, della Francesco still showed the rest of his aquiline nose as a clear indication of his patrician lineage. And in a time when Greek qualities are highly regarded, this particular quality only pushes forward Federicos reputation as the ideal Renaissance man. In essence, his portrait shows his Triumph as this idealized Renaissance figure, founded upon his successes as a most sought-after condotierri or hired general and a distinguished scholar of the arts.

His wife, at the same time, is the portrayal of the idyllic Renaissance woman. Prim and proper, she does not overwhelm the presence of her husband. Remarkably younger than her Federico, Battista was married to him at the age of thirteen, and this youth and innocence obviously translates into the picture. With her alabaster skin and smooth, lineless face, her look is a stark contrast to that of her husbands rough persona and only furthers how Renaissance society perceives its wives bastions of beauty, purity, and innocence kept in secrecy versus the sturdiness and worn characteristic of the men. In the painting she is presented as the epitome of the young, obedient wife. She is a clean slate that he husband can transform into the ideal wife. According to Simons, women are perceived as inconstant, like irrational animals without any set proportion, living without order or measure, women are transformed by their beauty of mind and dowry of virtue into ordered, constant geometrically proportioned and unchangeable images, bearers of an inheritance which would be precious to their children. A woman, who was supposedly vain and narcissistic was nevertheless made an object in a framed mirror when a mans worldly wealth and her ideal dowry, rather than her true or real nature is displayed (Simons 1988 44).  Wearing the latest fashions and expensively decorated, she is a representation of her husbands stature and household. She does not have an identity or a significance of her own, apart from those that is bestowed upon her by the dominantly male society. In the words of Patricia Simons, a woman is an adorned Other who was defined into existence when she entered patriarchal discourse primarily as an object of exchange (Simons 1988 42).

It is also important to note that since this painting was created after her death, only her idealized persona exists to be copied and therefore raises her character, and henceforth the character of the Renaissance women into mythical heights. She becomes, almost, an immortalized embodiment of the Renaissance ideal. She also completely becomes subjected to the perceptions of the men surrounding the creation of the portrait, her husband and the painter, having no say, whatsoever, in how she should be depicted.

Now, we look into the social, political, and professional status of the individuals portrayed. Based on the clothing worn by the subjects, it is quite obvious from which social strata they come from. Both individuals are wearing the conventional garb worn by Italian upper-class, albeit a little more modest. Particularly noticeable is the disparity in colours between the two subjects. Federico is portrayed wearing a deep red that bursts out of the canvass in its vividness. Battista, on the other hand, is dressed in sombre black, almost reminiscent of her funeral dress despite the smattering of pearls and brocade. On one hand this can be attributed to the relationship between a womans clothing and the mans social stature. According to Patricia Simons in her article Women in Frames The Gaze, the Eye, the Profile in Renaissance Portraiture (1988) the clothing is a metaphorical mode for social distinction and regulation. The emblematic significance of dress made possible the visible marking out of ones parental and marital identity (1988 42). In this sense, Battistas costume does not pertain to her personally but rather to her husbands social stature and reputation, where her identity, unfortunately, lies. Seen, particularly, in the works of novelists Bocaccio and Ariosto, we see chastity as the established female norm and as an assertion of the females dependence on the man and her acceptance of male domination (Kelly-Gadol 1977 140).

The difference in colours also relates to the question of dominance among the two portraits. Placed side by side, it is evident that Federicos portrait is the more prominent of the two signifying his more domineering stature over Battista. With her pale skin and dark, earthy tones, Battista is observably subdued and drowned by the brightness of Battistas red clothing. Unless the portrait depicts the woman during her marriage, she is otherwise subdued and almost invisible to the public eye (1988 42). She lies behind the shadows of the patriarch, whether it is her husband or her father.

Another notable characteristic of these portraits in comparison to traditional diptychs of men and women is the positioning of the subjects. As previously mentioned, Federico had incurred a battle wound that left the right side of his face mangled and unattractive. To hide this, paintings of him by other artists usually portrayed the Duke in profile, with only the left side of his face showing. With this we lose the concept of the gaze as typically attributed to the male figure in the portrait. Men are usually shown looking directly at the woman, as if drawing her entirety into his gaze. Women, on the other hand, are pictured with downcast eyes or averted looks, avoiding eye contact with her male counterpart. By doing so, she loses her ability to assert herself or her identity in the midst of the man. Also, she cannot hold him in her gaze because she is no position to place him under her judgement. At the same time this position is restrictive and places the woman in a static posture that doesnt allow much presentation of action. This sense of being closed-off revert us back to our understanding of the females role within the private realm such that she cannot even make eye contact with the rest of the world. As Simons quotes Bocaccio in her essay, to be a woman in the world wasis to be subject to the male gaze to appear in public is to be looked upon. The gaze, then a metaphor for worldliness and virility, made of Renaissance woman an object of public discourse exposed to scrutiny and framed by parameters of propriety, display, and impression management (Simons 1988 41.

In this special case we see Federico and Battista face to face with both eyes on each others faces. It may be viewed as a rare depiction of equality, but taking into consideration Federicos misshapen right side, it can only be seen as the best compromise to the creation of the portraits. To compensate for this, as we have discussed, the male figure is swathed in strong colours while the female figure is shown in subdued, almost dismal, appropriation.

But, overall, this diptych has been read as the depiction as the Triumph of Federico and his wifes Triumph of Chastity. Seemingly lording over the sky, the portraits depict the two leagues above the trials and tribulations of the earth and can be read as their ascension towards an almost mythical ideal his portrays his military and political achievements and his wifes triumph of feminine virtues. Both ruler and woman are typecast and stand for more than their individual selves (1988 46).

Conclusion
Looking at these portraits now, we realize that despite its supposedly accurate illustration of the subject, many different factors still affect the final outcome of the product. Most of the time, the persons are shown not as themselves but as idealized caricatures. They may be displayed as magically high above the clouds, as Federico and Battista were shown, to emphasize their superiority over the common man in terms of Renaissance ideals, but it does not erase the fact that these had once been people who wanted to immortalize themselves as they saw it fit. And in this case, they had wanted for the rest of the world to see them as the perfect examples of the specific sexes one depicting male virility and strength as one depicting female chastity. And, through this careful analysis we are able to discover how these Renaissance men and women go on with their daily lives as they attempt to reach that ideal.

Many of the images we have seen this semester use elements such as landscape and natural light to indicate a narrative behind the picture, to communicate a political or social perspective.  Manets La rue Mosnier aux drapeaux (1878) sends a tragic political message as a maimed veteran, mocked on all sides by flaccid flags, hobbles through a dreary street.  Malevich comments on the drudgery of peasant life in Bringing in the Harvest (1911) as cylindrical workers with stoic expressions gather cylindrical grain.  It often seems that artists with a social or political purpose are bound to a dull and dismal aesthetic.  But in the work of those artists who see the natural world as nothing more or less than a source of aesthetic pleasure, there is a daring use of color and form and an exuberance not found in the other images. These artists amplify natural colors and exaggerate natural forms to achieve a pleasurable aesthetic effect, caring less about the truth of nature.  

If artists like Malevich and Manet seek to tell a political or social truth, Picasso is content to tell a lie. He tells us that those visual lies are necessary to our mental selves . . . it is through them that we form our aesthetic view of life (no. 6). In Les demoiselles davignon (1907) he has distorted nature, present here in the female form, for a purely aesthetic end.  The young ladies taunt the viewer with mask-like faces. They flaunt their nudity in a manner seen in classical sculpture, yet the two-dimensional plane taking up much of the composition evokes an avant-garde cubism. The work is a vivid mix of cultural influences and styles, in it Picasso reminds us as he did in a 1923 interview, Through art we express our idea of what nature is not (no. 6).  

With his The Blue Nude (1907), Matisse rivals the decadence of Picasso as the female form is distorted to an absurd degree, drawn as she is out of nearly perfect circles.  Incredible shades of grass and water play off the bone-colored skin of the reclining figure.  The clash of colors surprises the eye.  The scene seems unreal, as though it has little to do with the everyday world. We ought to take Matisse at his word when he says, I am unable to proceed beyond a purely visual satisfaction (no. 5).

Mondrian is another artist for whom the real world is just a departure-point for expressive distortions.  His View from the dunes with beach and piers, Domburg (1909) demonstrates the austere abstraction de stijl could impose on the natural world.  Broadway Boogie-Woogie (1942-43) is a more energetic expression of the same abstraction.  Mondrian defies expectations and tradition with white space.  His ability to make something so exuberant out of basic colors and shapes has to be admired.  He seems to understand the instinctive way color affects the viewer (no. 5).  Yet for all its restrained abstraction, there is something decadent about the piece.  It challenges the viewer to have a purely aesthetic experience.  It is as defiant as the gaze of Picassos mademoiselles. Mondrian is not concerned with demonstrating his talent or sending a message. His distortions of the world are a challenge to the viewer.  There is the pleasure of the unexpected in Mondrians work (no. 6).  

Perhaps the most decadent distortion of the natural world is to be found in the Cellini Salt Cellar (1543).  The sea and the land have been gloriously personified in golden figures that gaze at each other from luxurious poses. In his mannerist style, Cellini has wrought two idealized human forms.  The seahorses and surrounding foliage are just as flawless, and all the forms somehow resemble each other in their perfection.  This is surely what nature is not (no. 6).  And of course the piece has as little to do with the real world of sixteenth-century Europe, with inquisitions and religious wars, as possible. The work seems to defy what might be commonly thought of as good taste, even making a king gasp in amazement, yet its beauty undeniable (no.4).    

Marijuana has long been used by different cultures around the world. Today, many sectors are pushing for its legalization. Marijuana use does not induce crime, it is a potential medicine, and its sale will stimulate the economy.

Studies show that marijuana use decreases aggression (Tinklenberg, 1981). And while possession related arrests are considerable, alcohol-related crimes are higher. By decriminalizing marijuana use, government agencies can focus more time and resources against other illegal substances and activities.

Legalizing marijuana will also promote further research on its prospective use against appetite loss, glaucoma, pain, weight loss and other diseases (Earleywine, 2009).

Meanwhile, regulated cultivation and sale of marijuana may also help the economy with its potential revenues (Easton, 2004).

Many sectors are calling for its legalization. Although I am not a marijuana user, legalizing it will encourage responsible use and promote medicinal research while stimulating the economy.

When confronted with the epic beauty of the Sistine Chapel frescoes, it is easy to see why Giorgio Vasari thought Michelangelo was the greatest of artists, the artist who bears the palm from both the living and the dead, transcending and eclipsing all others (Vasari, 1550, p. 225).  There is perhaps no work that better exemplifies the Renaissance sense of terribilit, the awe-inspiring grandeur for which Michelangelos work is so admired, than the Sistine Chapel frescoes.  This striving for unsurpassed excellence, which is one of the most distinctive qualities of Renaissance art, can be seen in Michelangelos The Last Judgment, painted on the wall behind the chapel altar. The fresco endeavors to create an exhaustive depiction of the apocalypse and the second coming of Christ.  It is a most ambitious work of art, a testament to the audacious humanism of Renaissance art, an ethos that seemed to believe man could accomplish anything.  

Michelangelo labored over The Last Judgment from 1537 to 1541.  The work was created through the buon fresco technique, a practice that made it necessary for the artist to work on a surface of drying plaster, or intonaco. Once dried, the painted intonaco could not be changed, and mistakes could not be corrected without chipping away the entire surface. A days work, or giornata, had to be carefully planned so as not to leave unfinished areas of dry plaster or noticeable gaps between sections. The patience and skill needed to craft a series of buon fresco giornate into a work the size of The Last Judgment boggles the mind. Indeed, it seems incredible that the fresco only took Michelangelo four years to complete.

If the The Last Judgment is awe-inspiring from a distance, standing as it does nearly forty-five feet tall and forty feet wide, it is no less amazing when viewed up close. Vasari praised Michelangelo above all others for the highest perfection in his depiction of the human form, for his manner so facile in overcoming the difficulties inherent in realistically capturing the body (Vasari, 1550, p. 226). Michelangelo made the depiction of the human form look easy, but no less real for that seeming ease.  Each figure in The Last Judgment stands or sits in a perfect natural balance, though many are perched on a cloud or in air. As they wrestle in midair, the bodies of saints and demons contort and strain against each other as naturalistically as wrestlers do on the mat or in the ring.  As the form of the half-clad man on the far-right edge of the fresco swims up through the air, the muscles of his calves and thighs bulge as realistically as if he were climbing stairs. The viewer feels that the apocalyptic progress of souls to their judgment in the sky is profoundly real and undeniably human.  Each figure has embarked on his own unique struggle.

Michelangelo once said that in all the thousands of human forms he depicted, no two were alike (Chambers, 2007, p. 346).  Perhaps it is Michelangelos commitment to the distinct natural appearance in every form that made him the favorite of Vasari and the envy of his fellow artists.  Renaissance artists prized above all else a truth to nature divine in works of art (Vasari, 1550, p. 231).  A classical appreciation for the truth of nature is evident in The Last Judgment.  Through his depiction of the body, Michelangelo is capable of communicating a vast array of emotional states and actions.  Near the center of the fresco, St. Bartholomew holds his flayed skin out for the viewer, a demonstration of his pious sacrifice.  The viewer feels, no doubt with a mixture of awe and disgust, that if it were possible to see a man with his own skin in his hands, it might look exactly the way the Michelangelo has depicted it.  The Last Judgment is an uncanny and awesome sight to behold because the artist has brought his great skill for the truth of nature to the depiction of a fantastical, and otherwise unbelievable, scene.  

The terrible beauty of The Last Judgment struck me as I was completing a reading assignment for another class. In The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, Walter Benjamin writes of an age before the great works of western art were available in copies, in books and on computer screens. He writes that the aura of the work of art has withered because the viewer can see the art object outside its original context and in lesser-quality reproductions (Benjamin, 1935, part II).  I have seen the Sistine Chapel only in reproductions of that sort, but I can imagine the impact Michelangelos frescoes would have had on a sixteenth-century worshipper.  And for the corrupted eyes of a modern-day viewer, perhaps The Last Judgment  best approximates the kind of powerful aura works of art once possessed.        

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Renaissance art
Renaissance was a cultural, sociological, religious, political as well as scientific phenomenon, which occurred between 14th to 17th century roughly and largely shaped the western world as we see it today. Renaissance started in the region of Tuscany, Florence and is considered to be the crucial bridge between the middle and the modern ages because of the intellectual revolutions that added to all the aspects of human thought at that time, and influenced the world for years to come. Most of the progress in Europe after the middle ages can be attributed to Renaissance (Strathern, 2003).

One of the most basic elements of renaissance art is the unique humanism it brought with it (Strathern, 2003). Not only in art, humanism of the renaissance is evident in all endeavors of human intellect at that time. We can say that many factors in society contributed significantly to create such a period of intellectual progress. Humanisms started as a reaction to the utilitarian approach towards education at the time, humanists believed that man should not be pushed into small, highly specialized roles, rather they should be made into good citizens and good human beings, with appreciation for the arts and the written word.

Renaissance was also a great time in terms of the redefinition of aesthetics. Renaissance meant the redefinition of what was considered to be good art by the society of the time. At the time of the renaissance, Italy was divided in a large number of states and renaissance started in Florence due to the patron ship by the authorities and princes of the state. Oil paints started being used for the first time, dried paint pigments were used with linseed oil (Strathern, 2003). This allowed the painter to work on a painting for several months as it took time for the paints to dry.

Linear perspective and lights and shadows increasingly became important in art. This started a wave of realism in art, where linear perspectives were used with realistic lighting techniques to produce realism in paintings. Another great aspect of the renaissance was the evolution of the frescoes, which were perfected by Michelangelo (Osbourne, 2006). In addition to this, in the field of sculpture, the advancement was the all rounded sculpture, instead of relief work.

Giotto is considered to be the father of the renaissance painting. He used approximate perspectives and human emotions in his paintings which gave them a humanistic dimension. In addition to this, he used multiple figures in his paintings which enhanced the human value of his paintings as contrasted to the representation of icons. Masaccio (1401- 1428) was the one of the first artists to apply the new method of linear perspective in his fresco of the Holy Trinity (Osbourne, 2006). In this painting he successfully used perspective to create a realistic looking architectural space within a wall. From the point of view of the observer, it seems as if the wall has opened up to provide this whole view of the holy trinity. Other Notable renaissance artists include, Leonardo Da Vinci, Botticelli, Raphael and Michaelangelo (Osbourne, 2006). French Renaissance was a part of this greater cultural awakening of Europe from where the painting under discussion comes, A Lady in Her Bath.

Renaissance was time of great wealth, which fostered great advancements in the arts. This is the example of sublime artistic developments coming out of peaceful times, in the shadow of wealth and plenty. Due to the artists being under the patron-ship of the wealthy, many paintings portray the wealth of those times.
A Lady in Her Bath by Franois Clouet is one such depiction of wealth and beauty of those times. This is a renaissance painting, which is realistic in perspective and has an interesting play of light and shadow. What is even more interesting is the contrast of the wealth of the lady in her bath, her beauty, splendor and youth with the ugliness of her maidservant, who is obviously not wealthy, who does not look young and has to nurse a child while working.

The lady is in her prime, she is an epitome of beauty and is scribbling idly on a piece of paper while in her bath and being waited on by two maidservants. On the other hand, the maidservant has to nurse one  infant, has to look after another child while waiting on the lady. The room shows the wealth of the lady in question and the lavishness and luxury of her life. The fruits placed in front of her portray that she has all the luxuries in her life, while she  the lady looks away from these things in the painting, showing her disregard for the same. The child, on the other hand, is reaching out to the fruits which shows his want for the luxuries of life which have remained just out of his reach. Furthermore, the painting is done is typical renaissance fashion with realism and attention to detail in terms of light and shadows.

The lady, whose pose is seemingly based upon the Mona Lisa has been linked to many women of the time, however she is supped to be an ideal of beauty of those times rather than an actual person. In another version of the painting (Dame au bain), the lady has different expressions and the lighting in the room is dimmer than the version previously discussed (Hampton, 2003). Also, the arm on the first version seems to be more anatomically correct than the second, more lighter version.

All in all, A Lady In Her Bath is a good example of renaissance artwork, it depicts an aspect of renaissance society, while defines the artistic merits of the same. The depth of the painting continues till the scenery that is depicted outside of the room, all in perfect realism and detail.

Modern art has seen a lot of transformation from the conventional forms of art presented in exhibitions. There has been a rise in the value associated to creative works of art as well as the incorporation of new ideas. The current leading artists who are making a lot of big money do not necessarily present the customary form of art that was used to be presented in art galleries in the past. For some artists like Zhang Xiaogang, the use of already existing form of art like past photographs forms a good background to cast his thoughts and recreate this history in a different form. The greatest argument has been whether such form of art can be regarded as true art

Art incorporates the presence of idea in mind and use of appropriate means to express such an idea in a visual form. The bonding of these two factors helps the creativity of an artist to portray a message by inducing the curiosity of a viewer. In the case of Zhang, the representation of the past in a very different form from what it existed meets all the considerations of a contemporary art. Art is one of the best forms that can help us to carry forward the history in our lives (Stoller, 2003). The ability of this artist in mastering art is seen in the way he has managed to bring out a different representation of the lives of himself, his people and other members of the society. By this, he has successfully managed to make a clear identity and representation of Chinese people. This mastery of translating photography to paint on canvas which is restricted to a black, white and grey scaled palette arrives at a stoic smoothness. This form of artistic painting is commonly referred to as bloodline painting and is commonly accompanied by use of small patches of colour to give finer details. The inclusion of the patches of different colour interrupting his images creates a form of uncharacteristic boundaries, other marks in the body such as birth marks or at times added to initiate curiosity of the viewer. Such works are highly valued as they incorporate traditional forms of drawing which wavers between animation and exaggeration (Jayme, 2005).

Xiangangs representation of a bigger family
Other forms of contemporary artistic paintings have included the use of real objects in nature in a form that disputes the boundary that is thought to exist between science, art and common culture. The creative work of artists like Damien Hirst has captured this ingenuity by successfully by creating artistic work that is animated yet visually fascinating. Such a representation of normal occurrences in an artistic form creates a form of natural history. This art has capacity to present an expression of human experiences of life, love and death is exemplified in other objects and animals (Winkler, 2009). Hirsts representation of death in the mind of someone who is living is seen in the way he represented the image of a fish in a glass tank of formaldehyde. To a viewer, the fish might look alive but in the real sense the fish is dead.

Shark in a glass tank of formaldehyde source
These new forms of contemporary art incorporate the shared ideas which can easily be adopted in art. Colour has continued to have a larger appeal to the viewers. Some of these forms of art are accorded high value due their ability to represent art in its complex form but in the simplest way. This form of art has gained popularity as advancement in art. This is so as it has fascinated art lovers by its capacity to represent usual things in the environment in a more beautiful and representative form (Winkler, 2009). These two forms of art although not from an original set of mind has gone ahead to offer these artists a big fortune and recognition on the world of art.

In the field of organisation of art, a growing concern over the new trend in art market has been noted over the shift of artists and organisers to monetary gain. Artists and art organisers have become more and more money minded than ever before. This is seen in especially in organising of exhibitions (Jayme, 2005). Most of the works being exhibited is now being produced in masses to cash in the demand of such works. Creativity has been lost in the process of copying valuable works of art. Most of the collectors with big money especially from European and American continents are buying these forms of art for the purpose of reselling at a bigger price. As a result, the value that has been accorded to art and artists is being exploited by the rich and famous who intend to make more money in future.

The current trend in global art market has elicited concerns from the exporting countries. The big money offered at collection galleries is having a lot of negative effects on the local cultures. This is because, most of their valued cultural artefacts are being exported from their museums thus denying their future generation a chance of enjoying their art. In the recent past, China has protested over auctioning of Chinese fountainheads artefacts which were made from bronze and stolen from China by Britons long time ago (Stoller, 2003). The act of amassing large quantities of valuable art in possession of one person defeats the essence of art. The most ethical aspect of valuable art is for it to be preserved Art is there to be seen

Despite of all these, most of high profile  international galleries have continued to open exhibition at points all over the major cities of the world making the art to be known by many people. The exposure of local artists to the international art exhibitions has opened new markets for their artworks.

Postmodernism is difficult to describe, because it is a notion that appears in a multiplicity of disciplines or areas of study, these include architecture, art, film, music, literature, sociology, communications, fashion, and technology. (Klages, Literary Theory A guide for the Perplexed)

Postmodernism mixes the old themes with new contemporary issues to come up with striking artworks that command, question, and captivate its audience to take part in discovering its inner implication. With its inner meaning and splendor, it was also used as a way of communicating which was aimed at social, political, and cultural problems within humanity. Architect Robert Stern stated that, The fundamental shift to post-modernism has to do with the reawakening of artists in every field to public responsibilities of art. Once again art is being regarded as an act of communication. (Wilkin, Schultz, Linduff, Art Past Art Present, p.579) The postmodern era freed its artists from the old conventional barriers that hindered them from doing art. The belief that the whole lot could be used to produce art was used to the fullest nothing would be wasted. For example, mediums like photography, computer animations, and movies. Even non-precise metals like steel, aluminum, and iron were used along side with gold and silver. Technology was a great medium that was used, as newer and improved technologies were available, the easier it was to produce art.

Possibly the simplest way to describe postmodernism is by thinking about modernism, the movement which postmodernism seemed to grow or emerge from. Modernism, is the movement wherein visual arts, music, literature, and drama which rejected the old Victorian standards of how art should be made, consumed, and what it should mean.

The most common form of art in the 1960s to the 1970s was minimal art. It was a form of art that was based on simplicity in the shape and content in the objects of art like sculptures and paintings. The art relied on the absolute physical attributes of the objects rather than their individual expressivity. This form of art allowed the onlookers of the art to experience the art because it represented the objects as they were. This form of art has proven highly influential to other forms of art that developed out of it like land art which borrows from it the idea of use of simple shapes and designs in construction because the artists using lad art and environmental art were opposed to commercial and empheral nature of minimalist art during this period.

Minimalist art was also called ABC art or rejective art because it relied on representing the object of art in its basic features like using the minimum number of textures, colors, lines, and shapes and no effort was made to  add any other object into the art. This influenced other artists to move away from the ephemeral nature of minimalism to the land art and environment art which were more expressive because they incorporated other objects in their art.  These two forms of art involve the use of the natural experiences to enhance the objects of art. Land art relies on landscape while environment relies on relating the objects of art into the natural scene. Minimal art engagement with the  three dimensional space was more personal where the  objects  directly engaged with the space as the three dimensional occupiers while in the  land art and environment arts, the space is occupied by the object and other natural scenery.

Introduction to Ceramics 
Ceramic is one of the materials which has its glory in the past and still retains its own importance. It had impacted even the trade relations and had a golden period in 18th century through French Ceramics. Ceramic is a solid material which is non-metallic and inorganic in nature made out of heating and later-on cooling and obtained in crystalline form. The term ceramic came from Greek words keramos which means a potter or pottery, where another meaning of potter is burn. Ceramic is the art of efficient and art objects which prepared by clay. Clay is nothing but formless material richly available on the earths surface.

Type of ceramics
Terra-cotta This type of ceramic is also called water proof ceramic material, the Terra-cotta also called plain unglazed pottery. Many pieces of terracotta were made by Albert-Ernest, a French Sculptor and among them the Abduction of Hippodameia is famous one.

Earthenware Among the oldest materials used in pottery, Earthenware is important one. This common ceramic material is used for decorative objects, pottery tableware etc. Other types of earthenware include Delftware, Creamware and Faience etc.

Stone-ware It is a vitreous or semi-vitreous material and also unglazed poetry and semi-porous glazed which is used for commercial crockery and tiles.

Porcelain This material is made by heating raw material it includes clay in the form of kaolin. The older name of porcelain was Italian procellana (cowrie shell) because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of shell. Its toughness, strength is mainly due to the formation of glass and also the mineral mullite. Porcelain generally used for durable industry and commercial purpose.

Mostly the terracotta is used in the sculpturing purpose. In those periods the sculpture is most significant. The history is very popular of European sculpture terracotta as the medium. Its use in France in 18th century was glorious and it is compared with marble and bronze and it is called as nobler material at that time. The sculptures were attracted because of several reasons because the ideas can be generated in great speed and it is not possible in bronze. In this period only the method used to furnish the sculpture of terracotta is polychromy. Because to shape the sculptures tools are used but professional artists they use their fingers than the tools. Throughout the history of European sculpture terracotta has always been a popular medium, although there are certain periods and regions, for example the 15th and 16th centuries in Tuscany and Emilia and the 18th and 19th centuries in France, where the use of terracotta was comparable with marble and bronze, the so-called nobler materials.

In the world of ceramics, the French ceramics is an extremely diverse and momentous artistic phenomenon. The ceramics is developed not only in French it also closely related to Italian and flemis art. Eighteenth century French ceramic works came out in theMuseum oftheStieglitz School, Shuvalovs collection. The French Faience is known for its Tin Glaze Pottery. Its legacy is continued for three centuries because of the well furnished decorative items and it has occupied significant and most extensive works of the history. The pottery body is covered with thick in enameled glaze, usually colorfully decorated. The clay is fired and dipped in the liquid and the artistic pain is done on the glaze and the model will be ready. With this only the well elegant tea sets and diner ware is possible and it is well furnished.

With the soft porcelain flowers are manufactured. The well known thing is the flowers are collected in placed in vases and adorned with bronze and other accessories in porcelain. It has one advantage that it is easy color the soft porcelain material

In the 18th century the main concern is about the fashion and France is known for it. The well known is large circular and oval dishes. In this period only the manufacturing of blue willows a distinctive variety on porcelain, pottery and other materials.

Mostly the terracotta is used in the sculpturing purpose. In those periods the sculpture is most significant
The stoneware is red in color on this period and it is hard substance it is used for decorative purpose of manufacturing the big jars and many decorative items.

The ceramics depicts artistic works, where as the term pottery and reserved for dishes, pots and other relevant functional items.Ceramic items can be both beautiful works of art and have a function.

In the earlier 18th century France was the producer of soft-paste porcelain. France introduced first important French porcelain which was prepared at St Cloud (Saint Cloud factory in 1693. The factory established maker of faience and dealt by Chicaneau family. The eighteenth century was great time for research and conduct scientific enquiry for porcelain development which witnessed, throughout Europe, wonderful achievements in this sphere. The successful production of porcelain was one of the most exciting discoveries in this period which is popularly known as white gold, porcelain which is produced for general aspects of fashionable public and private life.

Artists of Ceramics
Francoise Dufayard is a dedicated ceramist and zealous traveler. Ceramics was livelihood for herself and her daughters. William Morris who was a Craftman, textile designer, artist, writer and socialist of 19th century approved her occupation as a designer-maker.

One of the most famous French potter and craft man Bernard Pallisy covered with colored lead glazed to his ceramic works which was presented under Hermitage collection. The catalogue of A.P. Basilewskis collection attributed the ceramic wares to the workshop of Bernard Palissy.The work of Bernard Palissy that had noanalogous either inItalian orinFrench ceramics was characteristic phenomena ofMannerism.

Ceramic trade flourished well through out the world. French ceramics were in demand during the French colonial domination. It is now looked as an archeological resource. The unearthed ceramic vessels helps to understand material culture and also useful in reconstruction of trade and interaction pattern of those periods.

Conclusion
The works of the artists were glorious and as shown in the items. The France is known for its style and decorative items. The ceramics in this period is significant one and it leads to much change in the world. The France artists made several discoveries. There is no much harm with ceramics and they are environmental friendly. The ceramics use is extensive now days in the categories of tiles, decorative items, dinnerware items etc. The works of French Faience is well renounced and it is now seen in the museums. The antique varieties have been made in this period by the French artists. Because of their work the mood in the items is elevated.

The Song dynasty in China and the Mughal period in India occurred almost 150 years apart, but they triggered a cultural renaissance that defined the artistic landscape of both countries. This paper will examine the philosophical narrative in the art of both cultures to highlight the similarities and differences between the Song dynasty in China and Mughal reign in India. In this paper I will compare and contrast two paintings from these cultures, Fan Kuans Travelers among Mountains and Streams and Hamzas Spies Scale the Fortress from Akbars Hamza-nama.

The Song dynasty was one of the most dynamic eras of Chinese history. Occurring between the tenth and late thirteenth century, it was a time of economic prosperity. It gave birth to a culture of increasing refinement and scholarship with a focus on history, literature and a revival of Confucianism, which became known as Neo-Confucianism.  The Song dynasty was also a time of technological advancement and the development of urban centers. From iron ore extraction to infrastructure development, economic prosperity resulted in increased patronage for artists, performers and thinkers, particularly in the court and the cities.

In terms of art, the Song dynasty witnessed the rise of landscape painting as an independent genre inspired the teachings of Neo-Confucianism, that of an all-embracing explanation of the universe and becoming one with nature. Most landscape artists were urban court painters, professionals, scholars and officials their audience too comprised of the same milieu. Song landscape artists made close studies of nature and used their paintings as a way to warn against the negative effects of industrial development on the environment.
It is in this context that we find one of the great masters of Song landscape in the eleventh century, Fan Kuan. Not much is known about Fan Kuans early life. He is believed to have modeled his early works after the artist Li Cheng. He devoted his art to the veneration of nature and spent the latter half of his life as a recluse in the mountains of Northern China that he had immortalized in his paintings. A comment attributed to Fan Kuan sheds light on his disposition. He is believed to have said, My predecessors always found their methods in natural phenomena. So for me to take people as my teachers cannot compare with learning from natural phenomena. Better still would it be to learn from my heart-mind.

Fan Kuans Travelers among Mountain and Streams (Image-1) is a hanging scroll, measuring 6  ft by 2  ft. It is an almost monochromatic work in ink and color on silk. It is part of the permanent collection at the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan. The composition unfolds vertically in three stages. In the extreme foreground, we see a low-lying group of rocks at the bottom. Just above the rocks in the middle ground, travelers are crossing the mountain pass through the copse of trees. We also see some variation in the form of a waterfall and medium size rock formations as well as the rooftop of a temple rising above the trees. In the background, rising out of the mist are the massive mountains that appear to overshadow the entire scene.
The painting forces the eye to move from bottom to top, taking in the scenes as separate narratives, but with the sense of a shared destination. The miniscule figures of the travelers in the middle, the dense foliage of the trees and texture patterns of the rocky surfaces are painstakingly detailed. The mountains are overwhelming in their beauty, terrifying in their massiveness, and unyielding in their purpose as the singular force of power. This landscape is not a simple depiction of nature rather it is a sophisticated homage to the dominance of nature over man, evoking a spiritual connection with the universe. According to Thorp and Vinograd, the hierarchy in the painting provides a systematic account of the connections between things that may be related to contemporary thinkers who sought common underlying principles in moral and physical realms.

The Mughals ruled India from late fifteenth to mid-nineteenth century. The Mughal emperors were the last in a line of Persian rulers to invade India and placed their mark on the art and architecture of the Indian Sub-continent. The Mughal dynasty is exemplified by its aesthetically minded rulers who were poets and romantic by nature. Under their rule, the style of art permeated from great cities to the tiniest jade pins used for their turbans. Their Islamic beliefs mean that nature was the underlying principle in their art each emperor found expression through the artists and craftsmen that they patronized. The Mughal style highlights the remote, the unknown, the fantastic and the unattainable.

The third Mughal emperor, Akbar, ruled from 1556 to 1605 and succeeded in extending control over most of Northern India. Akbar was obsessed with the Utopian idea of Muslims and Hindus living in familial accord and implemented many reforms to create a harmonious social landscape for both cultures. He even married a Hindu Rajput princess in a dynastic marriage to gain the support of the powerful Rajputan warriors in his quest for unification of India. His time is considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire. Akbars court was a cosmopolitan one with representatives from different countries and religions present alongside poets, philosophers, musicians, artists and merchants. Akbar was an important patron of the arts his legacy continues to this day because of his support of artists provided a visual narrative of his time. As a child, Akbar had worked with Persian artists and learnt the delicacies of linear graces and harmonious restraint. However, due to the dynamic and often turbulent nature of his rule, the art from Akbars court reflects a more energetic narrative.

Hamza-nama is an excellent example of the style of art prevalent in Akbars court. It is the largest and most extraordinary Mughal manuscript of all time and illustrates the adventures of Amir Hamza, an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. The work was commissioned in 1567, a vast copy in twelve unsewn volumes containing fourteen hundred paintings in total that took fifteen years to complete. The manuscript was organized episodically each text page includes a formal opening and the corresponding painting defines an episodic structure for the story as a whole. The text was written on the back so that the painting could be displayed as it was recited. It is believed that the compositions were drawn by Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd as-Samad with the help of fifty or more recruits.

One well known episodic illustration is titled Hamzas Spies Scale the Fortress (Image-2). The illustration is painted with gouache on cotton cloth. It measures about 76 by 61cm and is part of the permanent exhibition at the Museum of Applied Arts in Vienna, Austria. In the painting we see Hamzas spies scaling a fortress wall and surprising some men who are sleeping. It is a busy scene as one man climbs a rope while another beheads a figure in yellow and lifts the head aloft. Even the sleeping men on the fortress walls appear to be exuding energy despite the fact that they are sleeping. Their bodies writhe sensuously against a backdrop that echoes the romantic nature of the setting. Monkeys and bird peek through the dense grove of trees below the forest, which is illuminated against a dark background.

The entire painting uses gem-like colors with the ruby, emerald, turquoise and opal being the dominant hues in this particularly illustration. Indian art in the past had been produced on walls and palm leaves. The Mughals brought with them paper and painting techniques from Persia that allowed artists to produce jewel-toned paintings of unsurpassed beauty. We see evidence of this style in Hamzas Spies as each minute detail is clarified using exact color from the concentric patterns on the fortress walls to ruffled edges of the birds feathers as they embark on flight.

Unlike Chinese art, the perspective in Mughal art does not follow a linear pattern. The spatial landscape is not three dimensional and the scene appears to unfold in flat geometric shapes and arabesque patterns. While the technique is Persian, the sensibilities in the painting are not. In Persian art, the blood would have been discreet and decorative. In this painting, the beheading is gory as blood gushes down from the severed head on to the yellow covering before dipping down the towers jeweled walls. The spy is almost gleeful as his sword bends back, but is ready and coiled for another strike. Akbars artists successfully translated their patrons energy into the illustration, depicting crowds, built structures and nature which provide a sensory experience of his reign, beyond the verbal narration of a popular story.

The arts of China and India are very different from a cultural perspective, but share some sensibilities in that the selected works represent our current understanding of their artistic styles. Landscape artists from the Song dynasty celebrated natures dominance over man, while Mughal artists from Akbars court used colors to convey a sensual and sensory narrative. The underlying similarity between the two regions is the sophistication of artistic endeavors during the Song and Mughal dynasties. In their respective times, both dynasties increased patronage of the arts and provide a platform for artists to not only undertake projects that would fulfill a cultural need, but also create an artistic legacy for their respective empires.

In the year 1968, during an extensive and memorable stay in New York, critically-acclaimed Argentinean avant-garde artist Marta Minujin concocted a controversial multimedia exhibit that explored the social codes of the New York social scene and using its elite denizens as subject. This April 2010, we revisit the project, entitled Minucode, after a more than forty-year hiatus as it was presented during its initial year of exhibition. Curated by Gabriela Rangel and Jose Luis Blondet, the project also finds its way back home in the former headquarters of the Rockefeller-funded Center for Inter-American Relations, now the Americas Society, where it was first produced and shown. Also in display are other works by Minujin that are integrally connected to the project Simultaneid en Simultanei (1966), a collaboration with Allan Kaprow and Wolf Vostell and Circuit (1967).
After an extensive surveying of the exhibit, I found it easy to understand the height of influence that the avant-garde movement attained during its golden years in the sixties. With artists like Minujin and avant-garde poster child Andy Warhol as one of its many purveyors, we can undoubtedly see the extent of artistic creativity that these artists were able to explore and employ during these fervent years.
A look into the hegemony found in New Yorks cocktail parties, the project entailed inviting some of the citys elite in the fields of politics, business, fashion and, art and observing their behaviour and mannerisms in a controlled environment. Partially a psychological treatise, Minujin held four separate soirees in the CIAR that involved people from the same fields, some of which were chosen because of their obsession with their work through a massive accumulation of questionnaires that entailed the aid of major publications in the city. The interactions were then documented profusely using different mediums like film and photography that could viewed in partiality in the present exhibit.
Evidence could be seen with the care and concern put in creating this revival of Minujins work. Moving through the three rooms, some of the walls an alabaster white perfect for display, we see how the curators took pains in recreating the original feel of Minujins exhibition. I particularly like how the audience were invited to employ the use of a movable cart equipped with a computer and a projector that showed original footage and soundtrack from the production of the project. Such interaction with the audience is remarkably few in the art scene. Documentation of the event was also projected on the walls of the exhibit as viewed in one of the rooms. Like dark shadows moving carelessly, cigarettes at hand, this part of the exhibit gave the viewer a sense of being surrounded by the action and seeing the project as it had happened.  As additional substantiation, photographs of Minujins subject in the environment she created were plastered on the walls, some in poignant black and white, some in vivid color, all depicting her subjects amidst their torrid mingling. Also available for viewing were the questionnaires and transcribed reactionary papers that detailed Minujins process in fulfilling this project. Like valued commodities, these sheets of aging, typewritten paper were enclosed in glass casings that stood in the middle of one of the rooms. One can also view the numerous gelatin sheets that the artist used for her light shows.  Vibrant and iconoclastic of sixties culture, the light that passed through these sheets served as a subtle backdrop to the artists attempt at an almost literal social deconstruction. Also at hand, were other documents and press-clippings of Minujins other shows during her artistically productive time in New York.
This kind of care for the documentation that the curators took pains in arranging just show how Minujins work, despite time and context, is still seen as valuable aspect of the 1960s avant-garde movement. Her work is clearly a reflection of the changing landscape of art during the 60s.  With an expanding economy and the world in general acceptance of the arts, these artists were given a kind of artistic freedom supported by the patronage of the state that far surpassed that of their predecessors. Most particular, in this sense, was festive and intense art movements in Argentina, which Minujin was part of. Also known as the countrys golden art years, this epoch was characterized by the need to break away from the characteristic channels and formats of the modern aesthetic experience and the feelings of political urgency that dominated that 1960s. As with other avant-garde artists, Minujin took to ritual and narrative to showcase the essence of her work, using textualization for her art accede interpretation in the myriad dialect of the vox populi. Other Argentinean artists who moved in the same path as Minujin in attaining international artistic notoriety were Luis Felipe Noe and Ruben Santantonin, which whom Minujin also collaborated with. Like Minujin, these artists favoured the postmodern appeal of installation and performance art. Noe, moving to New York at almost the same time as Minujin, created in his city studio an installation that discussed his analysis of broken vision or the virtual and physical compartmentalization of painting. Sharing with Minujin anti-aesthetic sentiments through the use of non-conventional materials, Santonins creative thesis revolves around the reflection of the existential and phenomenological particularities of art.
Her work, part psychological, part voyeuristic, is a clear reflection of her views of the American elite, the social structure that formulates such shallow relationships. In one article, she wrote, she mentioned that she deemed for the people who were part of the experiment to see themselves, see their being in from an outside perspective, and be able to assess their mannerisms and behaviours, correcting those that are correctable. Using her insight as springboard, we can find her works relevance in our time as we attempt to deconstruct our societys structures and understand its intricacies.

The world currently has an overwhelming number of works of art coming from different places and from different time and era. There are paintings and sculptures and other works by famous artists that serves more than the aesthetic analysis of art works but are also representative of other more meaningful significance in consideration to its contextual bearing and its other aspects of importance. Artists from all around the world in different time and places have come up with works of art that defines them as an artist and more importantly, define artistic movements, artistic significance and connects art with the other aspects of the socio-cultural life. One of the important and significant works of art in the field of sculpture is the Laocoon statue. Laocoon, both the statue and the story that has inspired the sculpture are significant aspects of the artistic aspect of the society.

The name Laocoon is prominent in both literature and in the arts. Laocoon is an important character in the writings of popular authors of past works. From this realm, Laocoon is transferred in the world of visual arts when the artists came to know about Laocoon, his life, his struggles and his death. Laocoon is an individual present in the mythology of both the Greeks and the Romans. He was believed to be a priest of Poseidon who hails from Troy. Despite his very limited role in the Trojan War and his being little-known compared to other personalities in the Trojan War, his role was important and he was a person who appeared to have a vision or foresight particularly about the Trojan Horse. Laocoon warned the Trojans about accepting the Trojan Horse, which the unwitting Trojans ignored.

Historians all believe in the fact that regardless of the fate of Laocoon when he was alive, he was destined for a tragic life in the end. Although there was confusion as to the real explanation surrounding his death, what is definitive is that Laocoon was fated to die because of the displeasure of the gods, whoever that might be and for whatever reason. The only certain thing was that Laocoon died because of his transgressions against the gods. His death would come as a surprise for Laocoon. The serpents sent to kill him and his sons were described in many writings as monstrous sea snakes that were abnormally big compared to ordinary snakes. These snakes appeared to have been created for this particular task  to kill people  considering the description of the snake as bathing in stains of blood all over its crest and body. Its appearance and movement possessed a sense of demonic evil no one can escape from, a sight that can cause fear in the hearts of men who was to die a grisly death from this monsters from the gods.

There are two explanations regarding the reason for the death of Laocoon and his two sons as depicted in the sculptures found in many places all around the world. First was the idea that he was killed because of the goddess Minervas displeasure over the fact that Laocoon threw a spear at the Trojan Horse brought by the Greeks as an offering, considering Minvervas favoring of the Greeks at the time. Second, there was the belief that Laocoon has violated the sacred place of Poseidon by procreating in that place.

During his time, there are certain rules and laws and policies governing the life of a priest like him. This includes a set of things that the individual is not allowed to do, not to mention actions that are not allowed in certain places deemed as sacred and protected by the gods. It was believed that it was the violation of certain prohibition made by the gods that resulted in the fate of Laocoon and his children.

When Laocoon died, the city-state of Troy believes that it has something to do with what he prophesized regarding the Trojan Horse and that the two events are strongly linked and connected to one another. Others believe that Laocoons death merely coincided with the fall of troy. Laocoon was already fated to die and that it just so happened that he died in a tumultuous event in Troy that had historians and critics read more into the situation than necessary and applicable.

This is not surprising since these things are always subjected to analysis and interpretation which, more often than not, varies from one another and counters one anothers version in one way or another. In Gills explanation and analysis, the death of Laocoon is more political than personal and insult-related consequence. The gods merely want Laocoon and his perspective on the wooden horse out of the way so that the Greeks can complete their victory and their conquest of Troy. They have been attacking Troy ceaselessly and with hardly any prospect of victory if not for the success of the plot involving the Greeks use of the Trojan Horse. The snakes were in fact assassins sent by the Gods to eliminate an important person that can hinder the success of Greece. This is considering the fact that Laocoon is a priest and what he has to say is important in Troy. Although not many believed him, the gods wanted to be sure and had Laocoon killed (Gill 155). Laocoon...warned his fellow-citizens not to permit the wooden horse to enter Troy. The snakes were sent, by Apollo and Artemis - pro-Greek - in order to destroy Laocoon and thus persuade the Trojans to admit the horse and seal their own fate (Gill 155).

Whatever the real reason was, the only certain thing is that Laocoon died of a grisly and gruesome death, being strangled by sea serpents sent by the gods from the seas, strangling Laocoon and his sons to death. This was what artists and sculptures immortalized in the life of Laocoon in consideration to the fact that this maybe the only aspect of his life that is interesting enough and with sufficient plot and emotion to make for a good sculpture like this one. It is one of the popular works of art coming from that particular time and era, inspiring other works of art especially since many other artists are inspired by the beauty of this particular statue.

Laocoons death was considered by some critics and historians as symbolic. For some analysts, they believe that the death of Laocoon symbolized and coincided with the fall of Troy, that as Laocoon fell, so would Troy. Both were subjected to the actions and interventions of the gods that led to their death or fall. When Laocoon warned Troy of the evil in the wooden horse offered by the Greeks which was ignored by the Trojans, it was followed by the attack of the two sea serpents and the death of Laocoon and his sons. Troys ignoring Laocoons plea was followed by the fall of Troy from the Greeks. The death of Troy and many of her sons as Greek soldiers lay siege on the poorly defended and unsuspecting Troy (Gill 155). It was Laocoons downfall that led directly to the catastrophic Fall of Troy (Gill 155).

This very dramatic, tragic, grisly and unforgettable end-of-life of Laocoon and his sons has become the target subject of artists in many different fields and not just in visual arts but also in literature as well. One of the most popular and earliest version and rendition of this scene is the white marble sculpture of this exact event entitled Laocoon and His Sons. According to Pliny the Elder, it was a sculpture created by the hands of three skilled sculptors from Rhodes, namely Polydorus, Athenodoros and Agesander. This sculpture would become the sculpture that would be remembered well as the tangible object that immortalized the dying moments of Laocoon and his sons.

In the sculpture, the central figure is Laocoon, a naked, muscular and towering central piece that appears to be seated while the sea serpent slithers all over his body. His face, tilted and angled in a certain direction, appears to be in anguish and appears to be saying something to the gods even close to his death, either praying or cursing the gods for his fate and for the fate of his children (Gill 155). Laocoon himself, is suffering from traumatic shock, following the emotion of fright, produced by the serpents unexpected attack (Gill 155).

Laocoons form appears to strike a very dynamic pose portraying movement and representative of strong human emotions, not to mention the fine sculpture detail in the body of Laocoon and his sons, namely Antiphantes and Thymbraeus. This sculpture is currently situated in the Vatican Museum in Rome. Many other famous sculptors and artists made their own version of the tragedy of Laocoon and his two sons. One of the notable versions was created by the renowned artist named Baccio Bandinelli. The many different versions of this tragic death of Laocoon are found in many different places including Rome, Florence and in Ukraine, among others. Literature was also strongly influenced and inspired by this sculpture and by the story of Laocoon himself. This includes the works of Lessing (Carrier 135) and Daniel Albright, among others.

The sculpture Laocoon and his Sons is an important Hellenistic-era sculpture. It embodies some of the important Hellenistic era ethos and essence in sculpture - the move towards sculptures that express movement and not just as still, ramrod, upright figures and the emphasis on emotions including agony, fear, indignation, etc. The Laocoon and his Sons was a sculpture that helps explore the new possibilities for idealized realism in sculpture, by focusing and incorporating the dramatic show of emotion and feelings in the sculpture to which the audience can identify and relate to. Much debate and focus has been attributed in particular to the face of Laocoon. His forehead features wrinkles that depict pain and emotional anguish. His parted lips appear to be moaning from the same pain and anguish while his eyes portray the same emotion.

Looking at the other details of the sculpture like the taut muscles, the bulging veins, the curled toes and the position of the parts of the body of the individual all depict pain and struggle for all three individuals. Even the snakes, which Pliny the Elder described as marvelous in their movement, was contributing to the feeling of flow of movement and emotion in the overall composition. The snake in fact has a significant role in the sculpture. It was not only the reminder of the impending death and the symbolism of death to befall man. It was also critical and key to the composition of the sculpture because of the role of the snake image as a visual cue that allows the audience to look at one person to the next, from Laocoons son on the left side to Laocoon to his son at the right. All are interconnected by the image of the slithering snake.

Besides the discussion on emotions as well as motion, the Laocoon is important because of its role providing example in the discussion of the parallelism of and unitary use of pain and beauty in neoclassical approach in visual arts. According to Ruprecht, neoclassicist ideals include the idea that part of the depiction of the physical beauty and visual aesthetic is dependent on the presence of and role of pain in the central image of the composition and in the struggle of the individuals which act as focal point of the work of art (Ruprecht 5). In the case of Laocoon, the figures provide this exact example - the audience gets the chance to experience and see physical beauty and artistic craftsmanship and detail. The physical visual beauty is aided and made possible because of the presence of pain in Laocoon and his sons.

Because of the pain that Laocoon and his sons are experiencing as depicted in the sculpture, the artist was given the chance and the opportunity to create something visually impressive. If Laocoon and his sons were merely standing up or walking without any feeling of pain, tragedy, anguish and other strong emotions, the detail on the body structure and parts may not be as extensive and as expressive as it was during this tragic moment in the life of Laocoon and his sons. Ruprecht cited the idea of Simon Richter who explained that the relation of pain and beauty is crucial to the neoclassicist aesthetic, claiming that this aesthetic simultaneously conceals and is dependent on some form of the dynamics of the infliction of bodily pain (Ruprecht 5).

From the time the sculpture was discovered, the art world was quick to acknowledge the aesthetic merit and value of this work of art (Schweitzer 1). The Laocoon statue was discovered in 1506 and was immediately hailed as one of the greatest examples of classical art (Schweitzer 1). Critics and analysts were quick to point out that the Laocoon statue is not merely a perfect and ideal work of art because of its characteristics, but it also has other roles in the art world, like how this statue challenges art ideals, for one (Ruprecht 5). Widely regarded as the perfect work of art, Laocoon nevertheless questions the common neoclassicist idealisations (Ruprecht 5). The sculpture Laocoon and His Sons is one of the highly praised sculptures not only based on its time of creation but even today, because of many different reasons. One of the reasons was discussed earlier, for its representation of the essence of the Hellenistic style in depicting human body in motion and in state of intense emotion. The insistence on motion captured by the sculptor, and on the specific beauty of this endeavor, found it most characteristic expression in the discussion of the Laocoon statue (Ruprecht, p5). Another reason why it is highly valued is that besides its aesthetic value, it also was able to survive with most of its part intact considering the many times this sculpture was moved and transported since its creation. According to Brilliant, the many different interpretations and analysis of Laocoon should not impact the fact that it is an excellent work of art for what it is visually. The veil of interpretations seemed to interfere with the direct perception of this prestigious artwork as an exemplar of ancient art, surviving into the present intact (Brilliant 125).

The sculpture Laocoon and his Sons is a powerful work of art for many different reasons. These reasons have already been explored by historians and art critics and have been explained for its merit and relevance. It is surprising how a sculpture like the Laocoon statue can have many different aspects and meanings into it, how it is the embodiment of the artistic perfection and an important icon when it comes to representing an era and an art movement that galvanizes the importance and significance of the Laocoon sculpture.