Art

It has been known that women as well as men in Italy take their fashion seriously fashion can kill, especially if it is high-heeled footwear (Lad, 2000-2009). But seeing the plethora of creative and professional Italian fashion designers, one can never be surprised to know that the Italians rule in the fashion segment (Lad, 2000-2009).  Italian women are known for their impeccable fashion sense and surely, one would now be thinking twice about packing the luggage before he or she would fly to Italy. Being well groomed and having a chic style of dressing are just the basics of Italian fashion. Italians are known to dress perfectly right down to their footwear. They are deemed to wear quality clothing with attitude, which shows that Italian fashion rules (Lad, 2000-2009).

The prestige of Italian fashion as well as its achievements at a global level has been attributed in part to the talent and ability of Italian designers (Italian Web). The rapid evolution of Italian fashion is largely due to the creativity of Italian stylists and fortunate initiatives tied to fashion, such as the foundation of the Italian fashion center in Florence. Valentino, together with Armani and Versace, to name a few of the most famous names that created and presented their unique and successful collections to the worlds fashion runaways, has kept the peoples attentionhigh on Italian Fashion (Italian Web). The fast growth of Italian fashion has made it possible for various Italian high-fashion shops to enter the international market with their own creations, coming into direct competition with Parisian fashion designers that previously dominated the sector (Italian Web).

According to historical accounts, Rome, Milan, and Florence are the Italian cities most closely tied to the world of Italian fashion (Italian Web). These cities host various important fashion events several times each year that bring international attention to the latest Italian creations (Italian Web).  Milan and Florence, for instance, both hosted the Pitti Imagine events, the main exhibitions dedicated to fashion in Italy (Italian Web). However, the Milan fashion shows are probably the most highly anticipated by Italian fashion lovers and fashion victims waiting for the latest fashion trends for the following seasons (Italian Web). During these events and exhibitions, Italian fashion always manages to distinguish itself from other designs, renewing from year to year its own prestige and that of the products made in Italy. (Italian Web).

Valentinos V trademark logo has been known all over the world (FragranceX.com) and has designed haute couture fashion, which made it the passion of beautiful people all over the world (Danyamanti, 2008). Women, especially stars such as Jacqueline Kennedy, Farah Diba, Elizabeth Taylor (Made in Italy online), Sophia Loren, Greta Garbo, Julia Roberts, Gwyneth Paltrow, Jennifer Aniston, and Halle Berry (Danyamanti, 2008) have worn his exquisite creations (Made in Italy online). Princess Margaret, Claudia Schiffer (FragranceX.com) Jacqueline Onassis, and Princess Diana have worn his designer clothes as well (Danyamanti, 2008). Rarely do red-carpet events pass without seeing one of Valentinos characteristically elaborate yet elegant designs (Danyamanti, 2008).  For over forty years, Valentino Garavani, known to all simply as Valentino, has been one of the most prominent names in fashion, creating some of the worlds most elegant evening wear and classic designs (FragranceX.com)

Valentino Garavani was born in Voghera, north of Milan on May 11, 1932. Valentinos childhood interests in fashion, painting and architecture, coupled with an immense talent for drawing, prompted him to study fashion design and French at the Accademia dell Arte in Milan. While attending high school, he showed a precocious artistic temperament and soon became interested in fashion (FragranceX.com, 2007).

It was Valentinos desire to design clothes that would celebrate the female form, accentuating a womans sensuality. He was once quoted to have said, I dont think any man in the world wants to go out with a woman dressed like a boy. (FragranceX.com, 2007)

Thus, Valentino took courses in fashion design and studied French to prepare himself to move to Paris. He was seventeen years old when he arrived in the world capital of fashion and couture (Made in Italy online).  His success led him to further studies at the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne, and it was there that Valentino flourished (FragranceX.com). He assisted Desses for five years before going to work for Guy Laroche, former chief illustrator at Desses, where he assisted Princess Irene Galitzine of Rome (FragranceX.com).

After a few years apprenticeship in the Fashion Houses of Jean Desses and Guy Laroche, Valentino returned to Rome at the beginning of the 60s to open his own atelier in Via Condotti (Made in Italy online).  He was an immediate success, impressing in particular Elizabeth Taylor, who was filming in Italy at the time and has remained a fan ever since (FragranceX.com). The launch of Fedrico Fellinis La Dolce Vita in 1960, the same year as Valentino launched his first store, accelerated his success as women everywhere wished to emulate the films style and its star Anita Ekberg (FragranceX.com).

Emerging as one of the leading couturiers of the sixties, despite the fact that his premises were in Rome, not Paris, Valentinos unique designs were widely admired (FragranceX.com).  He drew particular praise for his full-length skirts, and flew in the face of the new wave of minis. He also became known for his signature, Valentino red, and his love for the simple contrast of black and white (FragranceX.com).  His success led to the opening of a boutique in Paris and the launch of the now-famous V label.

Valentinos international debut then took place in 1962 in Florence, the Italian fashion capital of the time. His first show at the Pitti Palace was welcomed as a true revelation, and the young couturier was overwhelmed with orders from foreign buyers and enthusiastic comments of the press. In 1967, Valentinos White Collection, where the winning V first appeared, turned him into an unsurpassed king of fashion. He also won the coveted Neiman Marcus Prize (FragranceX.com).  The lace mini-dress he designed for Jacqueline Kennedys marriage to Aristotle Onassis made the covers of magazines around the world (Made in Italy online).  At the end of the 1960s, Valentino met Giancarlo Giammetti, an architecture student who abandoned the university, and soon, they became business partners. Giammettis entrepreneurial genius will prove fundamental to the worldwide expansion and success of the House (Made in Italy online).

In 1970, he launched his first ready-to-wear lines for men and women, with boutiques following in Rome and New York (FragranceX.com).  Valentino continued to design not just dresses but also ties, accessories, shirts, and jeans. His brand became further renowned with his perfume and interior decor line by then, Valentino had truly become fashions It man (Danyamanti, 2008). Oliver, the name of his beloved dog, was the name he gave to his younger line (Made in Italy online).  In the years to come, Valentino extended the range of products bearing his signature by turning his ideas and designs to various sectors of attire (neckties, shirts, accessories, jeans) and interior decoration (textiles, tiles, furniture, wallpaper) (Made in Italy online).
In 1978, he launched his own perfume during a gala in Paris, where guest star Mikhail Baryshnikov danced
Tchaikowskis La Dame de Pique at the Theatre des Champs Elysees (Made in Italy online).  Accolades and awards continued to come in for Valentino including, the highest decoration possible in Italy, the Calvaliere di Gran Croce, presented by the President Cossiga in 1986. (FragranceX.com).  Moreover, 1989 was the year that marked the opening of the Academia Valentino, a cultural space located near his atelier in Rome, for the presentation of art exhibitions. A year later, Valentino and his partner, Giancarlo Giammetti, created the organization called L.I.F.E., which aims to support AIDS-related patients. It was with the support and help from another famous friend, Elizabeth Taylor, that this organization was created (Danyamanti, 2008). To celebrate thirty years in fashion in 1991, Valentino threw a three-day party, reported to cost 5 million (FragranceX.com).  His success has also provided him with a lifestyle to match that of even his richest customers. Immaculately stylish, Valentino has become known for his perfectly coiffed hair, permanently tanned skin, and a wardrobe of Ralph Lauren, Savile Row and, of course, his own label. In fact, he is the perfect personification of his own label (FragranceX.com).  Valentinos designs through the years have remained romantiche has continued to make romantic, lovely, and fashionable designs that speak to women of all ages. Valentino believes that details should be minimal and that the cut of the dress is the most important. His dresses were flawlessly designed and have remained so for more than forty years (Danyamanti, 2008).

Valentino has since broadened his empire throughout the world, including the Middle East, Europe, and Asia. Valentinos expansion continues with a chain of boutiques in the United States and Japan (FragranceX.com).  Over the years, the perfectly-groomed designer has dressed the most privileged women of the day.2

In 2002, his Hollywood credentials were re-affirmed when Julia Roberts wore an elegant black-and-white vintage Valentino dress to the Oscars. Valentino has been honored by the governments of Italy, where he was awarded the Cavaliere di Gran Croce and France, which decorated him as a Chevalier de la Legion dHonneur (2005) (Danyamanti, 2008). In the same year, Valentino was awarded the Superstar award at the Fashion Group International Night of the Stars, by one of his favorite red carpet clients Meryl Streep.
In 2006, Valentino did a small cameo role as himself in the hit movie The Devil Wears Prada, for which he also designed some of the costumes (Danyamanti, 2008). The following year, he celebrated 45 years in the business and announced his retirement for 2008. His last haute couture presentation was held in Paris at the Muse Rodin in January 2008. During this event, he announced that he will then be followed by designer Alessandra Facchinetti, who was the former designer at the House of Gucci. Valentino remains a firm believer of a celebrity always dressing to the role of a celebrity, regardless of the day (Danyamanti, 2008).

The only label to have designed wedding dresses for both Jackie O. and J. Lo, Valentino is synonymous with opulence, extravagance, and drama (New York fashion). Even today, the brand is still manna among European royalty, American socialites, and celebrities craving a touch of class. While his new creations get a great deal of attentionand requests, especially around red-carpet timehis vintage dresses continued to commanding attention (New York fashion).

For almost half a century, Valentino dominated the Italian haute couture, dressing the worlds wealthiest and most glamorous women (Tynauer and Chitolina). Although he was not an innovator, Valentino has taken fashion to new heights by designing glorious, opulent, and timeless clothing for the most glamorous women of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. His contribution to the world of fashion would continue to be acclaimed in the years to come (Danyamanti, 2008). Despite his retirement in 2008, little has changed, but the brand continues to thrive and prosper and is worn by celebrities like Gwyneth Paltrow and Jennifer Lopez. Valentino has always designed magnificent gowns, never wavering from his signature style despite fads like grunge, deconstruction, and minimalism (Tynauer and Chitolina).

Valentinos devotees flock to him for couture, ready-to-wear, and a vast array of products and accessories including menswear, leather goods, eye wear, furs, and fragrances (Zargani and Kaiser, 2007). He reaches out to the younger market through his Oliver line of clothing, which is casual but still marked with distinctively refined Valentino sensibility. He produced a special collection of evening wear called Valentino Night, in which the luxury of his couture designs is adapted for a wider audience. All of his designs, throughout all of his collections, express a singularly opulent view of the world.8

Valentinos sensibility embraces both timelessness and originality, filtered through a dedication to a luxurious way of life and the commitment to express that lifestyle in his collections. For many, Valentino represents not just a style of dressing, but rather a style of living (Kaiser, 2006).  The long fame attained by Valentino brand has been very impressive. However, as the trends, styles and fashions continuously develop, the list of fashion designers is continuously adding up names. Even at the time of Valentinos fame, other fashion trends have risen as well. If we are to look back, Italian designs may have focused their taste on the beauty of Valentino until they have learned to appreciate others fashion designs.

Today, Valentino is just introduced as one of the Italian fashion designs that created history innovatively. But since Italian fashion models are continuously gaining a strong foothold in the fashion industry as well, it only goes to show how Italy has been the home of such creative designers and also successful fashion weeks, which give a platform for creative talent (Lad, 2000-2009).

One example of todays most known designs is Prada. Miuccia Prada may not have been technically qualified as an Italian fashion designer, but she took over the Prada label and helped it scale new heights. It was Mario Prada who began this most sought after label in 1913 (Lad, 2000-2009), which actually started earlier than Valentino. With a modest beginning, Mario Prada began his career with designing and marketing of his line of handbags, shoes, and suitcases through various boutiques (Lad, 2000-2009).  The start of Prada design was different from Valentino, since Valentino started right away in designing clothes. But the turning point for the Prada label was placed under the rule of Miuccia Prada. Her unmistakable sense of fashion helped the Prada label soar to new heights especially with the classic Prada handbag that was introduced in 1985. With her unique taste in unusual fabrics, it was no surprise to see her collection of womens wear to achieve instant success. The Prada label is known for its graceful and elegant look and this is known to be solely because of Miuccias meticulous ways. The 1990s saw Prada gain a strong foothold in the world of fashion, and this was mainly due to the prt-a-porter collection. The Miu Miu, which was launched in 1992, is meant for the younger segment of Pradas loyal consumers. With Miuccias talent and leadership skills, one can see various exclusive boutiques of this brand, around the world. Prada, with its innovative designs and global appeal, rates as one of the leading brands all over. Today, Prada is renowned all over the world most especially for the present stars.

Another design that actually made an initial fashion design is Armani. One of the leading Italian fashion designers of all times, Giorgio Armani first introduced his label in 1974 to 1975 (Lad, 2000-2009).  Thus, he started years after the fame of Valentino. This Italian designer has all the finesse and class that is reflected in his designs as well. Sophisticated clothing combined with a fashionable appeal, Armanis designs gained a strong foothold when he launched his own design house in Milan in 1975 (Lad, 2000-2009).  The Armani label now includes a variety of products apart from clothes such as perfume, shoes, sunglasses, and even lingerie. Giorgio Armani is known for his elegant, well structured, and relaxed clothing. His haute couture found its way to Hollywood as well when Richard Gere sported Armani creations in the American Gigolo in 1980 (Lad, 2000-2009).  Armani was also the first to broadcast his fashion show on the Internet. Armani has also targeted the youngsters launching the Emporio, which is a line of stores first established in Italy (Lad, 2000-2009).  This Maestro, with his creative and innovative designs, has a fan following in Hollywood as well, with the likes of Jodie Foster and Jack Nicholson (Lad, 2000-2009).

Gucci has also been one of the earliest designs that are still revered until today.  Guccio Gucci was initially known for his leather craftsmanship and accessories (Lad, 2000-2009).  Gucci saw his first leather goods company in 1921. He tasted success in the year 1930 when people from all over clamored for his fine collection of bags, shoes, belts, gloves, and more (Lad, 2000-2009).  The Bamboo bag was the first and one of the many products that caused quite a sensation. Gucci achieved stupendous success when he opened a chain of stores in Milan and New York. With the sad demise of Guccio Gucci, his sons soon took over his flourishing business (Lad, 2000-2009).  The 1960s saw the change in the Gucci logo, which incorporated the interlocked letter G (Double G). Gucci was named the European Company of the Year in 1998. Today, some the classic designs are being revamped and still have a very strong and loyal fan following (Lad, 2000-2009).  

Dolce and Gabbana, on the other hand, has been one of the hottest Italian fashion designers as well. Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana both worked as assistant designers till they decided to set up their own design studio in 1982 (Lad, 2000-2009).  Valentino at this time was at the peak of its success and fame. However, it was their passion and unique approach to their designs that finally saw the duo getting a break in 1985 when they were shortlisted in the top three to showcase their collections for a show in Milan (Lad, 2000-2009).  Dolce and Gabbana used varied colors and targeted women from different backgrounds, which got them a wider acceptance for their label. Owing to their astounding success, they finally had to look for a bigger outlet in 1987 (Lad, 2000-2009).  This duo saw major success from the year 1988 with new fashion launches and agreements that catapulted their designs on the global market. Their boutiques in Seoul, Hong Kong, Taipei, etc. gave them international success and established their strong hold on the fashion scenario all over the world (Lad, 2000-2009).

Cavalli is also one of the known designers in the world. Surrounded by art and fashion since his childhood days, Roberto Cavalli is known for his wild and flirtatious designs with experimentation in materials. Cavalli has always been experimental as far as his sense of fashion is concerned, and he is a gifted artist as well. This multi-talented Italian fashion designer is also renowned for his finely crafted designs in leather. Today, this brand houses the finest in men and womens wear, kids wear, accessories, etc. His sense of design is apparent in his works of art as well. His affinity towards leather gave birth to the ingenious process printing onto lightweight leather. He even created a new benchmark in the world of fashion with this combination and his patchwork creations. It was also mentioned that any list of Italian fashion designers would not be complete without the mention of Fendi.10 The House of Fendi was founded by Adele Casagrande and was later named after his wife, Edoardo Fendi.10 As time passed, Fendi was looked after Adeles daughters who soon ensured that the brand tasted success. Fendi is known for it fur accessories and ready to wear garments and this fashion empire rewrote all the rules of fashion with its varied and fashionable designs. The Fendi sisters saw tremendous success with their fashion shows as well. This soon established them as a leader in haute couture (Lad, 2009).

Today, Channel seems to be one of the big deal designs in the fashion industry. Due to the continuous development, creativity and artistry of fashion designers today, thousands of styles have been arising and the generation keeps on following the trends.

Most of the time, older people mention that fashion styles just keeps on circulating and comes back in time. That is why clothes, bags, shoes, and other garments that have been used in the past years can still be used when the style comes back. However, when the trends come back, the designs and styles also evolve according to the latest aura that may lift ones personality through fashion. This suggests that as long as people wear clothes, shoes, uses bags, accessories, and other garments, styles and fashion will keep on circulating all over the world. As long as creative designers keep on playing various designs in their minds, then people can expect more of different trends that will arise in the future.

Character of Humankind in the light of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes
Competition, diffidence and Glory are three conflicts prominent in the case of humankind, according to Hoobes. All three of these conflicts have different fulfillments in the eyes of humankind the first helps the man overrun other humans for their own gain, the second fulfills their need for safety, and the third for repute (Hobbes 33). Thus we can assume that Hobbes view of the world is a very pessimistic view and intrinsically disbelieve of the foundation of nature and inspirations of humankind. Hobbes explains upon this line of deliberation as he describes the penalties of the ordinary man left to his own plans. In Hobbes point of view, the being should give up their right of ruling over themselves, and penetrate into a promise or communal agreement with the society.

Every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of man, on this condition, that you give up your right to him and authorize all his actions in like manner (Hobbes, 119).

Hobbes alleged this admittance of defeat of human being rights to be inevitable, so much so that it was the only means to avoid the rough and destructive facet of humanity. In the heart of Leviathan, there is a primary thought that the ordinary man is so poorly prepared to attain freedom that it is necessary for a ruling class to exist, whether through realm or governments. What seems to be appealing about Hobbes viewpoint in Leviathan is that they in reality go against the modern time thinking. The rational series of idea from the Renaissance period, where the worth and probability of individual motive was first indicative, to the Enlightenment, is that the worth of human being motive and determination would carry on to be developed ahead. However, the approaches taken up in Hobbes Leviathan appear to be in contradiction with that array of thinking.

Hobbes idea was to try to view how humans would work without a regime.  Since Thomas Hobbes lived in a tempestuous age of English narration the most important illustration can be the being Civil war which was held between 1642 and 1648. Keeping this era in mind, it is clearly evident why Hobbes viewed humans negatively. Hobbes has tried to throw immense light on how he views humans without civilization, regime or a system of ethical values. This is what he calls the State of Nature. From this account of human race, Hobbes tries to clarify how to rule properly. Hobbes was a strong supporter that the geometric principles could be initialized in the politics and thus the resultant would be a perfect government.

Hobbes merely had only one way of showing the right type of government which according to him was to differentiate between what it means to be human and then understand what makes it. In the introduction of his book, Hobbes sees people as coherent machinery ruled by enthusiasm joined by means of motives, For what is the Heart, but a spring and the Nerves, but so many Strings and the joints, but so many Wheels, giving motion to the whole body (Hobbes 1).

One enthusiasm that by no means stops to enchant a human being is their advantage over other people, especially in the light of inferiority. This practically means that human race will always look out for dominance. This can be domination of power, position or gratitude. Enmity arises when two individuals will fight for these reasons and will try to destroy one another. The other reason that will make them fight with each other is competition out of their longings or needs.

Again if items are limited, it is possible that two humans will try to achieve the same object. This will help in creating enmity among them and they will go up to the extent of killing each other. The third cause of hatred would be diffidence. Keeping the Machiavellian view alive, Hobbes argues that a naive individual will be shattered if not they act callously to protect themselves. A human being ought to have defensive skills to protect themselves.

The reason within people will ultimately help them to conclude the way to finish the State of Nature.  This is only possible by relinquishing some if not all power to those who will use that power to generate a structure within which the individual will have a level of safety, confidence and tranquility thus leading to contentment. Hobbes believed that only a combined solitary control can productively hold back the chaos that the State of Nature poses and represents and this is what he claims to be the Leviathan.

Locke views on Slavery in the light of of Civil Government
Protection of individual freedom is one the main views of John Locke in his political treatise Of Civil Government (Uzgalis). Locke observed liberty as the usual condition of humankind. We must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man (Locke 4).

The most effective element of this passage in admiration to the accurately progressive life of John Locke is his use of the phrase, all men. Locke considers all humans to be one and does not make any differentiation with respect to the creed, class, religion. In this respect he also condemns slavery from being an element of differentiation among any nation that identifies itself to be free.

Slavery is simply defined as being enslaved or being controlled by power of another human. Locke defines slavery to be an outcome of being an unfair antagonist overpowered in war. The person who wins can then either enslave the defeated human or kill him. Locke tries to inform us in his treatise that slavery is actually a continuity of the state of war among the legitimate defeater and an enslaved, in which the defeater hinders to kill the enslaved, and rather makes him a slave (Uzgalis).

There has been a big chunk of literature written over the last forty to fifty years arguing that looking at the involvement of John Locke with operative and colonial regime, the conjecture of enslavement was planned to give reason for the organization and observation of slavery in England during the 18th century. This does not sound very likely of John Locke and if he wanted to do so, Locke would have much enhanced his view with a greatly more comprehensive meaning of rightful slavery than the one he gives.

When we read Lockes Of Civil Government, we will further be able to understand the opposing views of Locke on slavery.Every man has a property in his own person this nobody has any right to but himself (Locke 27). His physical efforts and the work done by his hands are righteously his. The thought of humans as belongings is one that is clearly culpable to John Locke. When we go back to review what influence John Locke had over the founders of the nation, this point of view on slavery becomes more apparent. Slavery is an ongoing war, with submission on one end and partial authority on the other. If this ceases, slavery ceases. The cause that can cease slavery is that no man, can, by agreement pass over to another that which he hath not in himself, a power over his own life (Locke 24).

Locke also identifies his main discussion to be based on legitimate slavery which is very important in early political philosophy simply because it identifies that the lawful presence of tyranny, defines and clarifies by disparity, the character of unlawful slavery as observed in 18th century England. Illegitimate slavery on the other hand is just taking over someones freedom without a valid cause or motive. Locke takes this line of consideration as he explains equality of all men. He states,

This freedom from absolute, arbitrary power, is so necessary to, and closely joined with a mans preservation, that he cannot part with it, but by what forfeits his preservation and life together for a man, not having the power of his own life, cannot, by compact, or his own consent, enslave himself to any one, nor put himself under the absolute, arbitrary power of another, to take away his life, when he pleases (Locke, 22).
Lockes line of philosophy is not only different with Hobbes on the issue of government but also they are directly in conflict with their views on slavery which was growing in Europe and the Americas in their times. It is predictable that England in the 18th century elated around 7 million slaves to the Caribbean and the Americas for various purposes. These include United States sugar cultivation and tobacco and cotton cultivation in the United States. Soon, the economists started to realize that the profits which plantation owners were earning because of this free slavery would not have been achievable if they had to in reality pay these people to cultivate their crops.

The feats accomplished by ancient Roman architecture had clearly established an influence in the history and developments of this art. Since the establishment of the empire along the Tiber, a tradition of building and rebuilding the city as a method of representing an emperors leadership to the citizens had been adapted and continued to affect the governance of many of its emperors. During the imperial period, an emperors building project is most significant for it reflects his career as a leader. And one of the challenges of an emperors responsibility as a builder is surpassing his predecessors achievement while being able to justify his building programs as beneficial rather than extravagant, thus avoiding the criticisms of moral rhetoric in the ancient times.

In ancient Rome, historians had viewed the entire political career of many emperors based on their building programs because the construction of public buildings, temples and imperial palaces used to be one of the main roles of the emperors. Therefore, the political careers of these Roman emperors were shaped by their construction program and what it shows about their character. One notable example is Nero, the Roman emperor during AD 60. He was known to be most passionate and fully devoted to his arts regardless of the cost of his building programs, spending his entire career building the city, and undoubtedly had done it well. However, there were ancient manuscripts questioning his capability as a leader. In fact, under the policy Damnatio Memoriae, in which memories of condemned emperors were lawfully destroyed due to an attempt to remove the memories of these people, Neros honorable monuments and imperial buildings had been destroyed. Ancient historians such as Tacitus, the Elder Pliny, and Seutonius wrote manuscripts criticizing the manner of leadership and Neros private life. Moreover, they questioned Neros building programs judging it to be rooted from selfishness and extravagance. It goes without saying that his excellent building programs were somewhat overlooked due to the negative opinion ancient historians had about him. And this essay, with the purpose of entirely focusing on the building programs of Nero and his successor Vespasian, aims to describe and analyze the construction programs each emperor had adapted and the messages they conveyed to their populace through their building programs.

One of the challenges in analyzing the building programs of each emperor was the lack of validity of the sources such as early manuscripts and writings for we know that in the past, the spread of myth was done to justify and explain certain events. And as Nero was condemned, much of his works and the evidence of them were destroyed. Therefore, a thorough analysis of the sources and the use of contemporary studies are required to be able to produce a detailed picture on how the city of Rome might have looked like during the reign of Nero and Vespasian.

In the ancient times, imperial buildings were not just seen as venues for a particular events or residences. These buildings were peoples way of representing themselves to others. And as a result, many emperors exerted so much effort and budget to make their imperial building express their ideologies and character as a leader. And this is indeed the case with Nero.

During his reign, the laws of nature were said to be defied by the experimental nature of the designs that he contributed into Roman architecture. He is one of the most noted Roman emperors who initiated impressive and distinct ideas in the architecture of Rome. During the beginning of his reign, he inherited a residence called Domus Tiberiana located in the west of Palatine and owned the Garden of Maecenas located at the crown of Esquiline. Thus, it can be assumed that the aim of the construction of Domus Transitoria was to connect the two properties, by a sequence of palatial units to link Esquiline and Palatine.At first, the plan of connecting two hills was criticized by several historians but more criticisms befall on Nero when he led the construction of Domus Aurea, undoubtedly his most controversial work.

Domus Transitoria which was presumably started in 60 AD was still unfinished when it was destroyed by the Great Fire in 64 AD. Its destruction made way to the construction of Neros most controversial building project, Domus Aurea (Golden House), which was much criticized not because of its lack of artistry and creativity but because of its grandiose. This villa whose vastness is still uncertain was labeled by several ancient historians as outrageous and increasingly lavish.

The destruction of Domus Transitoria most likely had given Nero an opportunity to improve its designs and began the construction of Domus Aurea whose design is clearly more ambitious than Domus Transitoria. Although, Domus Transitorias architectural design was also said to be innovative, it is undoubtedly certain that the Golden House was far more daring than Domus Transitoria. And his groundbreaking ideas in the architecture of the Golden House might have given way to many feats in Roman architecture that was to come.

Based on the account of Seutonius, an ancient historian who criticized much of Neros actions described the Golden House as an erected mansion embellished with jewels and gold, and a three-mile long colonnade and having a vestibule in Velia that housed the statue of Nero with a height of approximately 120 feet. The house which was the largest component of Domus Aurea was located in Palatine whereas the huge artificial lake surrounded by elaborate terraces and colonnades covered the Esquiline Hills. Alongside the Caelatian Hills was also a nymphaeum, a huge artificially natural fountain. The villa was divided into two parts the Palatine and Esquillin. The Palatine area is where Nero stayed more often and held his official banquets and meetings. While the Esquillin, based on the descriptions of different sources, showed fine architectural work. And their characteristic which really catches attention was the retraining walls and the detailed and fine masonry done. Its south facade also gave an excellent vista of the city below. And its north side had room vaults with retaining walls of terraces on the northern edges and west edges. This design, which was considered exquisite at that time, must have been seen as grandiose. Another distinct characteristic of Domus Aurea was its pentagonal court, which was open on its southern edge and was not like ordinary courtyards which were closed.

It could be assumed based on Seutoniuss account that there were structures which made Domus Aurea look like there were little cities inside that smaller structures, standing aside the huge lake and the imperial palace, perhaps to make the view grander when seen from the other main buildings surrounding Domus Aurea.
One of the controversies connected to the construction of Domus Aurea was the assumption that Nero started the fire deliberately in order to convey a message that he was an instrument in the rebirth of Rome. It was connected to the legendary fire during 390 wherein Camillus, the citys savior from the Gaulls, was named the second founder of Rome. He convinced the citizens not to abandon the city but instead be united in its restoration. Interestingly, the two events the Great Fire in AD 64 and the fire in 390 both happened on 19 July.

Nero was known to be a lover of attention and popularity, therefore it might be possible that Nero, being familiar with the ancient Roman stories, had intentionally set the city on fire and did it on the anniversary of a legendary day. However, the validity of this theory could not be proven because the fire that was said to happen on 19 July 390 was rumored to be a myth due to an attempt to justify Romes defeat over Gaulls and the chaotic construction of the old Rome after the destruction of the city done by the Gaulls.

Despite of all the controversies attached to the constructions of Domus Aurea, this large piece of architectural design certainly showed how prolific a builder Nero was.

Ancient historians stated that Nero had the Domus Aurea constructed at the expense of his populace who had to find settlements along the hills because this vast villa the Golden House was said to occupy a significant area of the city. Due to this, the early historians implied that Nero was worthy to be condemned because of stealing lands that should have been used by the populace but instead was used for the construction of the Golden House.

On the contrary, there are records which account that the Golden House was hardly a private place only built for Nero, in fact several public banquets and official meetings were held inside the vicinity of the Golden House. Thus, it is possible to conclude that Nero, in the construction of the Golden House, intended to share the luxury and pleasure to his people, while feeding his passion in the achievement of grandiose and fantasy in his building programs. It can be concluded from the evidence that Nero, in different occasions, held gladiator shows to entertain his populace. Thus, it is fair to say that he built this large villa with all its extravagant amenities, not just for himself, but to bring luxury to his populace.

However, the Golden House which may be similar to a park and a venue of entertainment meant for Neros purpose to share entertainment to his citizens was interpreted by many ancient historians as an evidence of the emperors lavishness. Nonetheless, its architecture, which was unlike any imperial building built prior to its establishment, was indeed distinct and splendid, taking Roman architecture to a new level.

In the span of his career, Nero also constructed other public buildings and temples aside from the imperial palace Domus Aurea. And in fact, there was evidence proving that even after Neros condemnation and death, many of the structures built during his reign had still remained. To ensure the continuity of water and food supply, he constructed provisional markets, the harbor in Ottis and aqueducts. All of these were for the advantage of his populace.

Another notable example is the Arci Neroniani which carried the Aqua Claudia to the Claudianum on the Caelian and from there to the Palatine, the Aventine, and the Trastevere region.
The arch was not destroyed because it was useful for the citizens. And indeed many of the buildings Nero had built were in fact utilitarian and answered the needs of the populace.

Some of these were his bath-gymnasium complexes which were built near the Pantheon between AD 60 and 62 and which remained well-maintained even after Neros death due to the obvious benefits it gave the populace. Moreover, he also had bridges like Neros ponds Neronianus and fountains like Domitians Meta Sudans and nympheum, which all survived because of them being beneficial to the people.

Also in 64 AD, Nero added a third permanent artificial body of water called the Stagnum Nerosis (Neros lake) located at the heart of the Golden House, added to the Stagnum Agrippae in the Campus Martius and the Naumachia Augusti across the Tiber. Around the two, Nero had pavillions built and he stocked the Lake of Agrippa with exotic birds and animals.

This clearly reflects how much Nero wanted to get Rome out of what was usual and conventional in architecture during his era. He also used architectural ideas in surpassing the building programs emperors prior to him had done, thus establishing a tradition that seeks to ameliorate the city of Rome.

But the possibility that Nero used his building programs as propaganda could not be easily neglected. Many ancient Roman emperors used different methods such as building monuments, temples, buildings and using coinage to make them well-remembered by the people. In the process, he became increasingly lavish to the point that he was rumored to demand money and to almost use up the Roman treasury while reconstructing the city after the Great Fire. But analyzing the history of Rome since its foundation, it can be concluded that Neros actions at first were hardly outrageous, for it was established that one of the roles of the emperor was to build imperial palaces, temples, and public buildings. The extravagance that Nero had shown with his building programs was a natural emulation of Julia-Claudian tradition  (Elsner 121).

It had probably only been overboard when Nero insisted on the construction of many architectural structures like an artificial lake which was said to be like a sea which did not really meet the needs of the people, but were just created for the sole purpose of luxury.

In addition to that, Nero also restored temples an example worth noting is his alleged restoration of the Temple of Vesta standing at the eastern end of the Roman Forum next to the Sacred Way at the foot of the Palatine. It was said that Nero received warning from Vesta not to pursue his plan to travel to Egypt prior to the occurrence of the Great Fire. Thus, Nero did not continue his trip. The Temple of Vesta was considered sacred by Romans because it served as a symbol of the safety and survival of the empire. Unsurprisingly, after the destruction of the temple during the fire, Nero immediately ordered its restoration to assure the public that the building had been restored implying that the city as well is safe. Moreover, he also had the House of the Vestal Virgins rebuilt and improved, placing it adjacent to the Sacred Way which leads to his Golden House.

Nero, despite the presence of several ancient writings condemning him for his actions as an emperor, undoubtedly brought Roman architecture to its next phase with his extravagant and splendid architectural designs. It may be true that the way he lived his private life, having admittedly killed his own mother and being rumored to be engaged in debauchery, was not a model of a highly moral life. But it had hardly anything to do with his contributions to the architectural designs through his building programs.

On the other hand, Vespasian, Neros successor, was left with the difficult situation Nero left during the last years of his reign. After Nero left the throne in AD 69, the burden of having to continue the unfinished restoration of Rome due to the destruction caused by the Great Fire was left to Vespasian. And there were still many public establishments that were not completely restored and there were still some in which restoration was not started.

Some of these were the two wooden amphitheaters in Campus Martius, the older smaller one of Statilius Taurus and the splendidly decorated more modern structure of Nero near the Siesta Julia. During that time, only the Circus Maximus was left as venue in the capital. So, Vespasian started the construction of the first amphitheater in Rome that was made of stone. The lake, used to be a part of the Golden House, was drained and at that exactly same site, a gigantic amphitheater was built.

Vespasian, in this act of building a humongous amphitheater made of stone which had not been done prior to that, reflected his practicality for the obvious reason that an amphitheater, though will take a longer time to build which indeed happened because Vespasians reign already ended before this ambitious construction of a giant amphitheater, will last for a longer time and would not be easily ruined by fire. Based on the descriptions of its design, the amphitheater showed excellence both in design and usefulness.

The structure has a travertine facade that superimposes three arcades framed by half-columns, Tuscan, ionic and Corinthia, the second and the third arcades framed by half-columns , successively Tird orders on pedestals. Also on pedestals Corinthin pilasters on high sub-plinths divide the attic into bays that alternated windows with the great bronze shields and windows, travertine brackets supported masts that carried the uelarium, an awning that protected the heads of spectators from the cruel summer sun. In the interior, five tiers of seats framed the spacious arena. Sloping toward the arena, these were supported on raking barrel vaults attached in turn to horizontal barrel vaults over the four corridors that encircled the building on the ground floor. The second and third levels had two such corridors, the fourth, and one. And the stairs from these corridors led up to the seats.

Aside from the construction of the huge amphitheater, Vespasian gained the support of the Roman populace by building programs and using a method unlike Neros. He was able to please the people under his leadership and gain popular support having succeeded Nero who was considered as the best builder in the history of ancient Rome since Augustus, it was difficult for him to surpass Neros architectural feat, especially with the burden of restoring the city in hand. But Vespasians style of leadership was effective. Being the first emperor under Flavian dynasty, his need of pleasing the public was excessively high. Nonetheless, he did the right move when he immediately had the Temple of Jupiter optimus Maximus restored, and this is to emphasize the restoration of religious and civil order in Rome. Through this, he had gained the trust of the Roman inhabitants.

Another basis of Vespasians building program was his awareness of the need to construct a temple where military achievements could be celebrated. Thus, he had built the Temple of Peace, as a reminder of peace for the Romans, on the lot previously occupied by the Macellum. According to evidence, the Temple of peace was a high fire wall of massive, externally rusticated, pepperino and travertine blocks, crowned by a simple travertine cornice, protected the interior. Within the colonnade on the south, east, and west sides of the central plaza had white marble steps, a Corinthian order with red granite shafts and a white marble interior pavement. In bays framed by pilasters that corresponded to the columns on the facade, and tabernacles visually enlivened the back walls.

Aside from the Temple of Peace, it can be considered as Vespasians greatest architectural feat. According to Carlos Norena, it was Vespasians way of being associated with Augustus who was known to be an efficient emperor (Norena). He also constructed the Temple of the Capitoline Triad. With the construction of a huge amphitheater and the Temple of Peace which can be seen as built for the benefit of the Roman populace, Vespasian continued to gain increasing support. And it is not surprising when Vespasian was deified after his reign, whereas his predecessor, Nero was condemned. Despite the fact that Nero had largely contributed to Roman architecture, his leadership was tarnished because of reckless actions he had done.

While Vespasian showed through his building programs that he was conventional and traditional, most of his policies and construction plans were in accordance with the tradition of Flavian dynasty. His constructions imply that he was less daring with the building of imperial palaces, temples and other public buildings but Vespasian deserved to be praised for he considered the needs and the wants of his populace before beginning a construction. Most of his works were well praised due to their utilitarian and conservative nature, which were both well liked in the moral rhetoric of Rome for he was able to restore balance and counteract the increasingly lavish building programs adopted by Nero. Thus, unsurprisingly, he was deified during the reign of his successor Titus.

Vespasian, having considered the current situation of Rome during his reign, did the right move when he opted to be rational and conservative, rather than emulate the extravagance which marked the leadership of his predecessor Nero. With this, it can be concluded that Vespasian is a model of an efficient emperor when he considered spending the little budget left in the Roman treasury when Nero stepped out with constructing public buildings that were mostly needed by the populace during his time. Indeed, he put the needs of his people first. He is clearly not as prolific builder as Nero was but he had shown leadership worthy of admiration with the moderation shown in his building programs which did not show designs grander than Neros buildings but indeed focus more on the utilitarian nature of the buildings.

Thus, both emperors clearly had skills as builders though Nero brought more developments in Roman architecture with his fancy and complex designs, some of the innovations he introduced may be unwelcomed by some but indeed Nero brought art a step further and opened its door to many possibilities art can achieve when he surpassed the tradition of an excessively luxurious imperial palaces which were common in Julio-Claudian dysnasty. Thus, his architectural tastes significantly influenced Roman architecture.

The differences between the building programs Nero and Vespasian had may have rooted from the fact that they came from two different dynasties. Julio-Claudian, where Nero came from, was noted for its extravagance, whereas Flavian dynasty was known to criticize the ways of those who are under Julio-Claudian dynasty and who opted to be conventional by their standards as prioritizing the needs rather than to go after pleasure. These differences were clearly reflected in their construction programs.

In Art of Korean War
After the cold war as a result of the antipathy between the United States and Russia, 1950 became the most traumatic year in Korean history as the ultimate beginning of a war between North and South Korea. Artists from all over the world wove the miseries and the dreaded effects of war in terms of visual art, revealing the brutality of national tragedy throughout paintings, sculptures and posters. Their works unveiled the true nature of Korean War in many aspects. These war arts crafted to showcase the cruel event in Korea and eventually succeeded to evoke the empathy for the survivors in Western society. Both Korean and Western artists displayed similar emotions and themes in their works of art, yet there were clear differences in the perspectives on the Korean War. Korean artists, influenced largely by the great influx of Western culture, developed abstract symbolism and propagandas to represent the ideological conflicts and the lively experiences of common civilians in the war. On the other hand, Western artists focused more on the descriptive scenes of battlefields, suffering of American soldiers and difference in the disposition of human nature. While Korean artists tried to illustrate the brutality of Korean War itself, Western artists emphasized the consequences of ideological conflicts and its result of physical clash.

Kim Young-na, Professor of the Art history in the Seoul National University, pointed out on the fact that many of masterpieces of art were lost during the war and post-war years because of bad management and the willing of some Korean bureaucrats to diminish the evidences of the war. Besides, some artists preferred avoiding the work with political thematic.

In some sense, the Korean War, which broke out in 1950, is an unfinished war for the Korean people. The standoff between North and South Korea across the demilitarized zone, or the 38th Parallel, continues to wield invisible influence not only in politics but also over almost all other aspects of both countries, including their economy, society and culture. In a political climate created by an unresolved ideological conflict, South Korean artists tended to avoid creating works with a political character. Art history also has showed little interest. It wasnt until 2008 that the Ministry of National Defense, which had organized an official war painters unit, began to uncover the works and the documentations on Korean War art. However, many works have been lost or cannot be located due to poor management during the war. Therefore, descriptions of the wartime situation in this paper rest largely on interviews with living artists. However, their differing recollections mean that an exact account is not possible. (Young-na, 2009)

Korean War that went on between 1950 and 1953 was a dead blow to the country that caused tremendous devastation to both life and property causing the division of South Korea and North Korea. This change in the political scenario caused a deep impact on the artists who migrated between the North and the South. Some artists following the leftist ideology moved towards the North while some remained in the South. Even amidst this confusion and destruction, Korean artists continued to resume their activities. The National Art Exhibition, Kukjon, started again in 1953 and came to an end in 1979 inspiring many of the artists playing the most pivotal role in contributing towards reducing the gap between the Korean traditional art and contemporary art. However, all the works being shown in Kukjon came to be termed as traditional and conservative. Soon Modern art began to be emerged outside Kukjon. This resulted from the acceptance of Western current of art by new generation of artists such as Byun Young-won and Yi Chol-ui. (Lee, 1979, p37) Park Re-hyon, Yu Young-kuk, Yi Ung-no and Kim Hwan-gi were also famous artists that had shown their full creativity after the war ended. In 1957 again a movement started to give space to the contemporary art by the group known as the Korean Art Informel. (Kim, Online)

Soon after the Korean War, artists began to search for new methods to express themselves while pouring the creativity into the revival of scars from the war. Park Re-hyon, one of the greatest artists of the genre, once said, I think poverty was really the origin of creation for many artists right after the civil war, he continued, There was no food, no job opportunity, everything had gone back to ashes all conventional values and ideas were laid naked and bare. I had to raise questions. (Art Radar Asia News, 2008) Like Park, who was considered to challenge the established Japanese-mediated, French Impressionism style, (Art Radar Asia News, 2008) Korean artists were inspired by poverty and animosities from Korean War and adapted ways to break the deep-rooted convention so that they could more efficiently illustrate the reality of Korean War.

If half of Korean artists pursued the war-art as recording method, the other half concentrated more on the propagandist art. Whether originated from their philosophical belief or from governmental pressure, many Korean artists who joined to the propagandist trend contributed to the greater division in ideology. Both North Korean government under the Soviet Union and South Korean government under the United States could not be as stable as other independent countries, and they followed an ideal concept of reunification of Korea. Since the Korean War took on the ideological nature, the activities of war-correspondent artists and their production became largely animated during the era. (Choi, 2003, p 285-289) There were so many artists who defected to South Korea due to political freedom, but at the same time, many artists from South Korea defected to North Korea because of the ideological differences. This current was also reflected in war-art, where the artworks strongly have ideological colors. In North, art was defined under the leadership of Kim Il-Sung with portraits and paintings conveying message most effectively. The most popular theme of the anti-Japanese spirit was the national reunification displaying communists message and life, In city, town, and village there is Kim Il Sung everywhere there is Kim Il Sung, staring down from a billboard or in the subway or on the apartment wall (DPRK, 2007, Online) Similarly, in South, many artists painted Goddess of Liberty, which was a form of homage of Liberty Leading People by Delacroix. Following the idea of seeking liberty and justice, South Korean artists of 1950s commemorated the Korean War as inevitable conflict between evil and justice. Defense of liberal democracy became a holy subject to many ideological artists, and they represented the war as sacrifice for the ideal. The message was simple We are martyrs of Liberty. (----)

Another extreme form of propagandist art was the poster. The poster artist is specifically an agitator familiar with the period of the time and is endowed with the analytical judgment of the reality. They are called the bearers of the time arousing the revolutionary appeal and creative power among the people. One of the complete anti America propaganda posters was created with by line Lets drive the US imperialists out and reunite the fatherland (Comstock, 2008) Kim Sung Hwan, 78 a highly reputed cartoonist recorded the events of during the invasion by North Korea. He recorded the events of the war days with his own unique style blending the oriental colors with the pen. After 1950, he was appointed as the war artist by the Ministry of Defense, but his earlier sketches were more original sketching feelings of civilians on the war torn land. (Salmon, 2009)

In the article devoted to the 60th anniversary of Koren War, the work of Kim Sung Hwan was describes as the following

For years, his work graced this countrys two major newspapers he was twice interrogated under the authoritarian regimes and 200 of his strips were expunged. He has been lauded by fellow cartoonists including Malaysias Lat and Britains Frank Finch films have been made of his output and PhD dissertations on his work reside at Harvard and Kyoto universities. Today retired, with his collection displayed at South Koreas National Museum of Contemporary Art, this cheerful and sprightly little man can rest on his laurels. (Salmon, 2009) Kim Sung Hwan , also known as the Gobau (Strong Rock) met the Korean war at the age of 18. He already started to depict the surrounding events in his unique style sensitive pen cartoons and delicate Orient watercolors. Later this style became his trademark, but the real success came to him after the Seouls liberation on in September 1950, when he was hired by the Ministry of Defense as the war artist.

Andrew Salmon describes on of his works, named The Bleakest Midwinter

Catastrophe has struck. Out of the freezing north, China attacked. Defeated and demoralized, UN forces have given up North Korea in hopes that the victorious communists will halt at the 38th parallel. The hopes were in vain Peng Te-huai stormed south on New Years Day. Gobau was embedded with these ROK troops on Yeoiudo Airfield as they await evacuation down the Han River on tank landing craft, and thence to the sea, and the south. (Salmon, 2009)

The artist reminded that the troops had transport for evacuation, but the civilians didnt. Approximately million of civilians joined a trek going south by the winter road. Many of them was children, women, old people. Their hopeless mood was forsened with the news about the terrible defeat of the UN rearguard outside Koyang. Though the losses were significant, it wasnt the bloodiest battle of the Korean War, which was finished only 2,5 years after.

On the other hand, the anti-war artists emerged among the public. They were not like pioneers of fine arts. Nor were they like two preceding examples of propagandists. Anti-war artists were also ideological group which gained more popular support and sympathy due to their perspective on war. They painted the grotesque images of the farmers and the families dancing merrily under the blue sky, quite contradictory to the earlier propagandist. These artists were now exploring the themes of the social issues including hardships of the common man, improvised farmers and poverty of urban life but they were suppressed by the government as the mere illustrators or leftist ideologists. Minjung Misl can be considered as the break up from the dominance of Monochrome painting towards the post modernism. (Kim, Online)
Contrast to the activities of Korean artists, Westerners displayed their thoughts on the Korean Conflict in their own ways and perspectives. For Western artists, especially those in America, one of the most participating nations in Korean War, Korean War was the forgotten war. Unlike Korean press that named Korean War as the tragedy of fratricidal war, Western countries viewed it as one of ideological events in the world which was not successful enough to spread the greatness of Liberal Democracy. In other words, it was a police action led by the United States to protect the democracy, not the effort to keep the nation together. Thus the Western artists focused more on the heroic adversities of soldiers, the apparent gap in ideologies and miserable last of the enemies in battlefields.

The most active Western artists in Korean art were photographers. Journalists and photographers caught many instant scenes in battlefields that many paintings could not regenerate. One of the most well-known Western photographers is Max Desfor. He was an Associated Press photographer who took number of verbal snapshots of the war. In dangerous battlefields and military camps, he did not stop taking pictures of soldiers, refugees and tragic sights afterwards. One of the most important roles was his arrangement to attain photographs of American prisoners of war from North Korea. He could take a picture of North Korean captives in Pusan area in order to show the dismal ends of the enemies and their mistake to go against the democracy. (----) Another famous journalist was Herbert C Hahn, who was a Navy Reservist and also a photographer who was called on the duty during the war. During the spare time, he was recording with his sketches and drawing all activities of troops on shore and off shore while Hugh Cabort who as a officer of the navy personnel recorded various ships and units during the war in his beautiful sketches. (Naval History  Heritage Command, Online)

However, the photographers were active from the Korean side also. It was the official politics of South Korea to deal with the war systematically.  South Korea government mobilized many official photographers to take part in the war. They disseminated their photographs through the press making the people of Korea and all over the world understanding the war. It is interesting that war photographers wasnt paid, but they obtained the necessary material from the well-known producers of the products for photography, such as Kodak film and Leica IIIB cameras, and could eat in the soldiers canteen.

Professor Kim Young-na writes in his research
Lieutenant Im In-sik, who led the Army Information Agencys troop of official war photographers, captured many images of the war until he was discharged in June 1952. Some of his pictures, such as American Soldier Captured and Murdered and Destroyed North Korean T34 Tank, were picked up by the Associated Press and released across the world, receiving widespread coverage in the U.S. press.
Interestingly, as photography in Korea before the war had been largely pictorial in nature and very few people were experienced in straight photography, war images by Korean photographers often tended to be artistic. Ims famous work, Destroyed North Korean T34 Tank, exhibited this tendency. The destroyed North Korean tank abandoned in the landscape loses its menacing look due to a ray of light in the frame. The photo almost appears to be a Romantic image of ruins (Kim Young-na).  

Among the other prominent photographers of the war  Lee Gyeong-mo and Honam Ilbo can be named. It is not the secret these days that all the photos were the object for censorship, however the most talented works delivered the suffering of the ordinary people without the expression of ideological positions. Thus, one of the most famous Lees pictures depicts the woman, which carries a baby on her back going through the battlefield. Woman tries to find the body of her husband among the row of dead bodies on the ground.  It can be concluded that the war photographers laid the popularity of documentary photography  for a long time working with a strong sense of duty.

In terms of paintings, Western artists displayed similar themes to the photographs, mostly the brutality of war. The most famous Western artist that critically analyzed Korean War within the painting is Pablo Picasso. Massacre in Korea, a well-known masterpiece representing brutality of Korean War, became the symbol of cruel result and suffering from the war. Ironically, Picasso, despite his identity as Westerner, supported Communism at the time and thus created large amount of Communist-praising pieces to appeal the French Communism Party. In the painting, many soldiers tried to shoot the women in different status and age. By contrasting the robotic, emotionless soldiers with strength to the weak and powerless females with tears, Picasso successfully depicted the horror of the war. Ironically, despite his identity as a Western artist, he was an advocate of French Communism. Perhaps his motivation was to appeal the loyalty toward the Communist party, yet his intention to illustrate the suffering of innocent and powerless civilians is revealed. Another example, War, drawn by the same artist, does also represent the brutality of Korean War. Yet, his intention this time was a little different from Massacre in Korea he contrasted two different sides in his own view. Picasso probably wanted to connect his painting with a prevailing rumor about the so-called germ-warfare, believing that world of democracy would be as cruel as the rumor. This was the clear indication of ideological barrier in front of the artist who tried to record the reality of the war.

Speaking about the art of Korean War it is worth to mention Korean War Aircraft Nose Art. This is a specific kind of art, which means decoration the noses of war planes. It was a largely American tradition since WWI. During the  Korean War this tradition went on, and the noses of planes were decorated with the girls in pin-up style, silhouettes of animals and the symbols of motherland.   About the most popular women images in the nose art the following information could be found

The B-17 Flying Fortress Sally B. doubled as Memphis Belle in the 1991 film by the same name. To save money during the production of the film, one side of the plane remained Sally B., while the other side was dolled up as Memphis Belle for the movie.

Although the B-17 is the plane most people think of as the standard WWII bomber, there were actually more B-24s in service. The B-24 had a long range and carried more bombers, but was much less attractive than the B-17. Million Dollar Babys name referred to the fact that during the war, the U.S. government paid 1 million for each B-29. Many of the B-29s were decorated with nose art in a variation of the Million Dollar Baby theme. Other bombers had nose art meant to look intimidating to enemies or names and mascots with sentimental value to the crew. (Existing visual, 2009)

The examples of this kind of art are very rare because of their very nature. Many bombers were lost during the war, and the valueless masterpieces of nose art were lost, too. However, this question is rather contradictory the researches arent still have a single opinion about the nature of nose art can and have it be saved.  It is worth mentioning that the themes of nose art usually are far from the politics just girls, animals and pictures of the sweet home. However, this kind of art represents the proper era in the history of the art war, and this era still continues.

It would be the mistake to consider the Western art on the theme of Korean War as single-sided and biased. The example of the western artist who felt deeply the pain and sorrow of the Korean War is Ray Simon. He created has created a memorial painting in the honor of Korean War veterans. The artist claims he wanted to remind the mankind about the tremendous sacrifice made by Korean soldiers in the fight for their freedom.
The painting features U.S. infantryman being comforted as casualty tags are made out. Featured to the left of the Korean War memorial painting by artist Ray Simon are U.S. troops moving through hilly terrain to establish defensive positions. Blended above the troops is the U.S. Infantry firing a 75 mm recoilless rifle at the advancing enemy. The top of the Korean War painting, A Nation Remembers, depicts U.S.  paratroopers descending towards earth from C-119 planes in an attempt to block the retreating enemy forces. Painted to the right of the Korean War memorial painting are members of Company L, 7th U.S. Infantry. Exhausted from all-night combat, they illustrate the vacant expression that was commonly referred to as the thousand-yard stare. Below the members of Company L is a U.S. Marine raising our flag over the American Consulate in Seoul . This painting serves as a constant reminder that Freedom is not Free... (Freedom is not free, 2009)

Both the Korean and Western artists had a profound impact of war that was seen in their works. The Western artists as shown by Navy Combat Art Program and others gave the memorable account of the war with the dramatic events and realistic pictures of the various happenings during the war like experiences of soldiers and the peoples sufferings. They have captured the intense moments of the wars with the camera lens and fused the earliest moments with their images. While on the other hand Korean artists were more of the propagandists raising the effects of the wars on their lands, arousing hatred towards Japan and America through the portraits and artifacts. Their creative works of art also raised the social consciousness among the citizens towards several social issues like poverty, impoverished farmers and others. Social realism was most popular among communist societies and North Korea was not different, only with the exception that there was complete state control over their art while Westerners were free to display their thoughts and creative endeavors.
 
The most contradictory kind of art connected with the Korean War is the art of war monuments. The war had a great influence on the all Korean art for many years. The construction of the monuments was mostly inspired with the government. These monuments are the reflection of the ideals of that time. One of them is the monument by Park Chil-seongm, which was erected in 1952 under the name Mother and Child Commemorating the Recovery of Lost Territory. The theme of mother and child was very important because during the wartime many families lost their members. The 1950 was the time of massive construction of monuments of the war.  The anti-communists thematic was the common policy in South Korea, which predetermined the ideological composition of the monuments.

Citing the work of Kim Young-na, An example of such memorials can be found in Kim Gyeong-seungs A Monument to the Dead Soldiers of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, which was erected in the Mt. Yongdoo Park, Busan, in 1957. The monument features three figures that symbolize the three branches of the military holding rifles, bayonets and grenades, while the central figure is holding a dove. The figures muscular physiques and the monuments overall heroism are reminiscent of the Socialist Realist style. Nevertheless, there was no criticism of this similarity at the time of its unveiling, and its idealized images of heroes served as a model for later monuments. (Kim Young-na, 2009)

Conclusion
The place of Korean War in the history is unique it wasnt the war for the territory or for the power within the one state or among several states it wasnt even the resource war  the most popular type of the war in the 20th century. It was the war between democracy and communism. The ideological wars happened in the history before, but they rarely were the war among the people who share the same history. It could not go without the influence on the Korean art. Professor Kim Young-na claims Because the Korean War broke out soon after an independent government had been established, the war art did not produce works for explicit propaganda that distinguished clearly between allies and enemies. Even though official war artists units were formed, artists who belonged to them assert that their art witnessed the war not through the organizations they belonged to but through their own eyes. (Kim Young-na, 2009)

The works of art of this period was focused on the unique problems  but these problems can be felt deeply with all of the mankind because freedom, purity, pain and sorrow are the universal problems of the mankind. These works can be the significant art of the education for the young people who never saw the war, and the great remind for others. From the culturological point of view the art of Korean War is the example of Socialist Realist style.

Ambrogio Lorenzetti and Pieter Bruegel the Elder lived and painted in very different worlds.  However,  even though their work is separated by over two centuries and vastly different cultural factors, both Lorenzettis The Good City Republic  and Bruegels Wedding Dance  share at least one significant commonality.  That is, each work elevates the ordinary to the extraordinary, capturing a scene of commonplace life and the people of their respective communities and inviting the viewer to covet the kind of life which is depicted.  The motivating factors which lay beyond each artists moving creation differs slightly, but each artist seemed to have ambitions to use his work to further or enhance social change in some way.

Lorenzettis The Good City Republic is part of a three paneled fresco entitled The Allegory of Good and Bad Government commissioned by the republican government of Siena.  During a period in which much of Europe was still under rule by monarchs, the rulers of Siena felt the need to remind the public of the benefits of republican ideals, in order to protect and support that particular form of rule.  Lorenzettis mural served as a mild persuasion, depicting an idyllic republic community in which peace, harmony and security reign.  In the painting, the people of Siena seem economically prosperous and there is obviously a great climate of social interaction, indicated by a thriving marketplace, a group of people dancing together and even a wedding procession. When contrasted to the life depicted under the tyranny and corrupted rule of monarchy (as illustrated in another of the panels), the idealism of the type of republicanism represented by The Good City Republic seems even more appealing. It doubtless would have served to encourage the people of Siena to want to protect their form of government.

In contrast to Lorenzettis work, Bruegels Wedding Dance seems much more earthy and fun-loving, however, there are equally strong political and social factors which motivated Bruegels work.  As noted by art critic, Rebecca Mazzei, Bruegel painted Wedding Dance  during a time in which his Netherlandish society was under threat (Mazzei 1) from the strict morays of Roman Catholicism.  Bruegel, perhaps fearing the loss of long-held and beloved cultural traditions, painted a scene of a raucous wedding party, full of merriment and color, motion and life.  While Lorenzettis work showed the harmonious mix of social classes (i.e. it depicted  country and city folk, rich and poor folk getting along), Bruegels painting focused on elevating just the life of the peasantry.  Bruegels images seem to be suggesting that, in the simple life of common folk, lies the beauty and heart of Netherlandish culture. Rather than seem vulgar, the cheeky images of peasants drinking, dancing, kissing and misbehaving, comes off as very charming and engaging.  All the behaviors which might be characterized as vice or sin  by the Roman Catholic Church, Bruegel re-envisions as life-affirming, joyous expression.  

While it is impossible to measure just how much of an impact Ambrogio Lorenzettis The Good City Republic and Pieter Bruegels Wedding Dance had on their respective societies, it is clear that each of these important works contributed much to the common dialogue.  Further, beyond any political or religious ambition each artist may have had for his work, ultimately, it is the beauty of ordinariness, humanity and the  common man  that got a well-deserved moment in the spotlight as a result of these paintings.

1. How does opening scene begin Describe technically and psychologically
The films opening scene started with walls of Xanadu with a no NO TRESPASSING sign, then the films shows random shots of the property in Xanadu, the area was filled with fogs and the sound was very hunting as if someone was dying and to the viewers it was. The sound and the visual effect of the film has emphasizes the protagonist of the film, Kane and his once great empire that has soon fallen. In the scene where Kane was about to die, the image of being alone filled the whole scene.

2. Discuss the uses of light and darks in this film
The sound manipulates the dark and light of the film. When something is about to happen to the protagonist or emphasizing his greatness, fast beat music plays. But when the protagonist is about to do something mean, a slow hunting beat plays. He also uses the angle of camera to enlighten the viewers of what is happening in the scene.

3. Wells uses the UP-ANGLE SHOT. Give several examples of this. How do these shots create a psychological mood
When the protagonist of the film has lost hope of the election, the scene back in the newspaper office, the shot opens with the journalist standing outside the door of Kanes office and when can finally came out, the angle has emphasized how devastated he was. The director uses used the up-angle shot when Jedediah Leland confronted Kane when he got drunk telling him what he fills about what had happened in the company. You can feel the tension between them, as if emphasizing how small Kane looks and what Leland says is true.

4. Describe the creative imagination of Welles in the scene with Kane and his first wife at the table.
In the scene where Kane and his first wife Emily was sitting on the table showed and let the viewers understand how the relationship started and how it failed drastically that in the end of it, they almost never spoke to each other. The table scene also showed how the adoration of the couple died and how they lost interest with each other, it started with the couple who cant get off each other. It also showed how less and less he treated her wife with respect. His wife also lost interest of him after he spent less time with her and more of his time in the newspaper.

5. How does he use sound to create mood
Cheerful music plays when something great or historical has happened in it the life of the protagonist an example of this is when the New York Inquirer is about to give Kane a welcome home trophy, the musics beat is fast and exciting. When the director is emphasizing the defeat of Kane in the election, no sound was added, not until Jedadiah came in and wanted to confront him about his previews actions. When emphasizing the loneliness of Kane, the director uses a sort of hunting sound.

6. Discuss structure Observations, details, technical aspects and emotional involvement.
The Newsreel wanted to be different from the others, they know that the death of Kane will interest the public and they dont want something that the public have already heard, they want something the public doesnt know yet, something different. They know the last word of Kane, everybody knows, but no one dared investigate who or what rosebud is. They are show casting uniqueness, much like The New York Inquirer when Kane first got a hold of it, unique from every other newspaper.

Mr. Thatcher was the only who could have understand Kane, he was there when Kane was sent away by his parents, he saw how the father of Kane could have treated Kane. After Mr. Thatcher has given Kane his wealth, he was confused why Kane only got interested in the old newspaper company and when Kane took it, he was struck by how much Kane bashed bank trust. Although he never really understood Kane, he did have some genuine intentions to make Kanes life better, all Kane saw is someone who took him away from his parents, someone who mimics his parents but doesnt equal to them.

Mr. Bernstein has nothing for Kane but admiration, even in the death of his business partner, he still admires him. When Mr. Bernstein was interview, all that he could have told the interviewer were great things about Kane.

Jedediah Leland was one of the very first people who work for Kanes The New York Inquirer he was the dramatic critic for the newspaper. Like Mr. Bernstein he too have admired Kane for his unique ideas and strong principles, but has lost it when Kanes attitude change, he no longer was the man he use to admire at the beginning. Jedediah think that Kanes change after a while, he was no longer the man with principles, for Mr. Jedediah, all Kane was in the end was a pretentious act.

Emily Kane was the first wife of Kane she was the niece of the president, Kane and Emily had a child who also admired his father. She admired Kane when they first started but after sometime the love, the spark between them no longer exists. Kane attacked his uncle and almost never listen to what Emily has to say, He did what he thought was right, after Kanes affair with the hopeful singer they then went on separate ways.

Susan Alexander Kane, the second wife of Kane. They met at the streets, and she was first a mistress before being married to Kane. Kane built a opera house for her, the first night of the opera was a total flunk, not wanting his dignity to shambles and proving Leland was right, he wrote an article that bashes his wife and then fired Leland. Devastated with the review, Susan no longer wanted to sing again but Kane demanded that Susan continue in order to gain control of what little dignity he has left. She was much younger than Kane, Kane Built everything for her, but the young wife of Kane wanted what to do things that most young people do, associate with other people rather than being like Kane who isolates himself in Xanadu. The relationship was controlled by Kane, making his wife Susan feel more like a property rather than someone who youre suppose to care about. Kane did what he thinks Susan like, he even built Xanadu for her, but in the end, it never worked out, because he never really asked what Susan wanted, he just built what he think Susan wanted.

7. Epilogue- discuss Relate to beginning
The reporters face is not seen all through out the film to create a mystery, so that the viewers wont have a hold over him and just concentrate on the protagonist Kane.

One of the main theme in Citizen Kane is The Difficulty of Interpreting a Life, the question at was., who was Kane, not what makes him, all trough out the film, his wealth is only subjective to who he really is. The whole film is about Kane but we dont really know want drove him to lead his life the way he did, only he could answer that and he is dead, all the film gave us for assumptions why he lived his last days that way. The second was the myth of the American dream, when Kane was left to Thatcher he was promised to live a life of dreams, and although he was rich and later on became powerful and sort of in control of what the people wants, he was alone and isolated in his own world. The third was the unreliable memory of those who told the story of Kane, since Kane never really poured himself out from anyone, no one really knew him, all they could say was how they assume he is, and it is not even that reliable, all of those that the reporter interviewed was either dead or too old to remember most of the things in life.

8. Key moral questions The meaning and value of Rosebud
Kanes family is not poor enough to give him up, his mother merely though that he would grow up to someone better than them if he is influenced by other people than his father. While with my Thatcher, Kane got what the concept of the American dream, financial affluence and material luxury, but never what he wanted. When he was getting older and already rich and has many influences, he stopped being the person who really understood the public but someone who insisted the news to the public, giving them what they though was good for them.

What Kane did wrong in most part of the film is when he tried to buy everyone, and though of what would be best for them but never asking if that is what they want, much like what his mother did to him. So when he lost the election for governor, he transferred his frustrations to her second wife who was the cost why Kane lost the election in the first place.

After his strike of good luck, with the newspaper and getting married to a presidents niece, he was devastated on his lost at the election, saying if that is what the public wants. That destroyed his youthful hope and excitement, adding the failure of his second wifes opera house, he was tired and just wanted to be left alone.

No one can really escape destiny and fate, if it chooses you to be alone you would be. We are all destined to die, in the film no matter how great Kane lived up to be in the end, it was his fate to be alone and alone he was. Even though Kane was not the kind of man who you want to around you, he still have opened a lot of doors for everyone, without his guidance the destiny of Susan might have not been fulfilled, she went back to singing and dancing soon after she left Kane. The publication that was once dying was revived, that was its destiny, it was planned, someone had written that it will become a newspaper that set the standards among other newspaper.

In the film Meet John Doe and Citizen Kane are similar in terms that both of these movies are about knowing who the person really is. The paper both printed news to spring up political issues. In Citizen Kane they printed out a murder of a women even though it wasnt confirmed and in Meet John Doe they printed a suicide letter from the unemployed John Doe, which was all made up to protest societys ills. In both movies the setting circulated in the newspaper publication.

Art depicts life, they say, and, essentially serves as a visual metaphor of the society upon which an artwork draws inspiration from. And when a society experiences a most pivotal shift in ideology and lifestyle, we will immediately see this rendered in the works of that generations breed of artists. Such is the depiction shown in both Claude Monets Gare Saint Lazare (1877) and Gino Severinis Armored Train in Action (1915). Though these two artists come from completely different timelines and art movements, it is evident that the subject of these two iconic paintings characterizes the technological advancement that has dictated the direction of their societies.

Claude Monet is one of the most preeminent Impressionists during his time and is said to embody the essence of the the Impressionist Era. Born in November 14, 1840, Monet first received recognition when he and fellow-Impressionist Renoir painted a ferry in Paris that sparked the beginning of Impressionism. From 1871 to 78, Monet, along with a motley of other artists like his friends Manet and Caillebotte, relocated to the area that surrounded the Gare Saint Lazare, the second-largest train station in France during the Victorian Era, who found that this modern environment served as the perfect setting for experimenting on new pictorial forms. The trains, its billowing smoke, and the endless procession of commuters fascinated these artists as they witnessed the dawning of an age of transportation.

In 1877, Monet debuted a series of seven paintings illustrating the landscape inside the station, including one called Arrival of the Normandy Train, which we shall use in this papers discussion. As a follower of the Impressionist movement, Monet used quick, uneven brush strokes, creating a hazy atmosphere that captured the effect of light on the subject as a person would see it at a glimpse, which is the primary concern of the Impressionist artists.  The movement is also an excersise on the usage of vibrant colors swept lightly with smaller brush strokes, as seen in the painting. Usually, this subject was found to be unpalatable subjects, but Monets depiction, using blues and copper colors, portrayed a cheery image of the station that was deemed successful by art critics.

Following the same vibrant approach to technology, Severini, a Futurist , painted Armored Train in Action as a positive look into what other people of his generation would think as a technology-controlled, totalitarian future. In his younger years, he had gone to Paris to study Impressionism and had met some of the pioneers of the form like Signac. In the latter years, he was associated with the Futurist movement that was politically connected to the Fascist establishment of Italy. And like the other followers  of the Italian art movement of Futurism during his time, he took inspiration in the speed, technology and modernity that has come to be representative of this era. Unlike most of his contemporaries, who focused on the dynamics of the machine, Severini was more interested in depicting the humany body in motion.

Another aspect of Futurism is its negation past art movements, stating in their Manifesto as written by founder, Italian artist, Filippo Marinetti We stand on the last promontory of the centuries... Why should we look back, when what we want is to break down the mysterious doors of the Impossible  In his painting, he depicted an armored train, a clear representation of technology and capitalism, capped by a bomb nozzle and filled with armed guards. The train hurtles through its surrundings at a top speed, the landscape whizzing by, as it seemingly rips the canvass in half. In this painting, he conveys the look of a speeding train by creating diagonals that seem to emanate from the landscape onto the body of the train and vise versa. This emphasis on the beauty of speed is a metaphor for what the Futurists believe is technologys destiny, to drive past traditional ideologies on art and, even, life and proceed to reach the Impossible.

Like Monet, Severini also puts the positivity of technology into light. As implied from their two paintings, the arrival of technology is a welcome sight that propels humanity forward. This choice of subject could be attributed to the fact that both men were witnesses to overwhelming social changes as a consequence of the advancement of technology. They put emphasis on the train because it symbolized the moving forward that society was doing. Monet showed people entering the train as a portrayal of its growing popularity and necessity.

But unlike Severini, Monets work is grounded on a sincere fascination of the impact this advancement had on the environment. Severinis work, on the other hand, is a retaliation against the norms and standards imposed by the traditions and ethics of the past. Monet deems to show the joviality that can presently be found inside these stations, whereas Severini shows the exciting future that can be attained with these technologies. Because Severini as a Futurist also believes in the glorification of war, he has depicted men with guns held high to shoot at anyone who dared come near.

What similarities these two artworks have in aspects such as subject and context end when you compare them according to the elements of style by which it was made. In essence, Impressionism and Futurism herald from two different eras, and therefore constitute of very contrdicting ideologies and techniques. Impressionism is an art movement propelled by the popularity of a particular form. As previously mentioned, its main concern was the process of accurately capturing reality through light and color. Impressionists were also the first to step out of the studio and paint reality as  it happens, focusing on mundane, everyday events. For his series of paintings, Monet actually received permission from the station officials to stay inside the terminal for him to be able to paint. Futurism, on the other hand, grounds itself on content and meaning, and from then on further explores it through form. Unlike Impressionism, which came about when artists began to apply this technique to their own work, Futurism is the only art movement declared by a group of persons as such, as evidenced in their Manifesto. It is founded on a particular ideology and even gets inspiration from certain concepts derived from Fascism. Andbecause it is a retaliation of the traditional, it actually negates the concepts that uphold other art forms including Impressionism. Futurism also works on the metaphorical and is focused on creating a message and delivering and making a statement, than showcasing a style or technique.

Their styles also quite differ from each other. Impressionism uses soft, short strokes blended haphazardly and using pure colors to further the play on light. Futurism, on the other hand, as inspired by the more extreme art form of Cubism, uses rigid lines to create seemingly geometric shapes. The soldier portrayed in the painting look like blunt triangles encapsulated inside a rectangular space. Around them, what seems to be depictions of trees along the path of the train, the leaves are geometrical in shape. Impressionism deems to capture a more realistic appearance of the world, albeit through blurry pictures. People are shown in realistic situations, whether they be riding trains, sitting by a lake, or conversing in a cafe, Impressionism never loses its sights of reality.

Over-all these two iconic paintings, which are representatives of their genre and generations,  come from two completely different arenas. In essence, their styles and techniques greatly differ from one another, and at some points, are incomparable. But despite this differences, the subject matter of the two paintings and the beliefs of the artists put them among a group of people that entertain the grand possibilities of an optimistic and progressive future.