Art

To most people, ancient Rome is remembered solely for the empire that controlled the lands bordering the  Mediterranean, much of Europe and Great Britain. This is understandable because of the great accomplishments of the empire and the contribution it has made to foundation of Western society. The five centuries before Rome became an empire goes too often unnoticed. Republican Rome was born with the overthrow of a monarch, King Tarquin the Great in 509 BC. From this beginning, the early Romans forged a system of government consisting of representative bodies that were elected every year, an aristocratic body that would evolve into the Senate, and the executive magistrates. Each of the three divisions of the Roman republic had limited and specific powers designed to prevent any single branch from becoming too powerful and this separation of power was kept in check by the rules of the republican constitution. The republic was relatively more democratic than the empire that was to succeed it. Art of republican Rome reflects the value they put on public service, family lineage and military accomplishments  The final quarter of the first century BC historically marks the end of the republic. The triumph of Gaius Octavius over his rivals, the senates acquiescence in granting him dictatorial powers and the title Augustus marks the beginning of the empire. Imperial Rome is aloof, decadent, ingenious, and magnificent all at the same time. The art of Republican Rome can be distinguished from the art of Imperial Rome by the scale of works, the intended purpose of art, and by its ultimate function.

Roman mythology tells us that Rome was founded by two brothers named Romulus and Remis between the eighth and tenth centuries, BC. Romulus killed Remis over a dispute about who would rule the city,  and so it is from Romulus the name of the city is derived. The period from around 509 BC to the Fifth century AD will be the focus of this brief summary of Roman history. Republican Rome historically begins with the overthrow of the last Etruscan king Tarquin and ends in the last half of the first century BC. The republic had a constitution, elected representative bodies, and a system of checks and balances to regulate the powers of the senate and two consuls by requiring them to work together on important issues of state. The time of the republic is strife with social conflict and war, both external and internal. The wealth made by a few from the expansion of roman territory drives the desire for more expansion. The steady corrosion of the republic by those with the power to realize their own selfish dreams leads to dictatorship, first by Julius Caesar, and then the reign of Augustus Rome is now an empire. Any remaining elected body from the time of Augustus onward is powerless and only for show. The emperors for the next four centuries have absolute authority over any and all aspects of Rome and her empire. There are periods notable by the rule of just, competent, and beneficent emperors. Some periods are concentrated with many emperors because assassinations were common and sometimes three emperors killed in a single year the norm. Overall, however, most emperors can be characterized as being corrupt and decadent from being infected with the scourge of absolute power. The transition from republic to empire and how it is reflected in the sculpture, painting, and architecture of the Romans is the focus of this paper.  

The scale of roman art grew in proportion to the size of the empire. With more lands under its control, Roman engineering and architecture had to provide the basic necessities newly incorporated urban areas by building greater civic works. This demonstrates that at least some monumental works were not done explicitly for the sake of doing it, but because they had a practical need for it. Aqueducts of the Roman Empire were and still are a miracle of engineering. The Roman aqueduct was constructed mostly underground to maintain the purity of the water and had to be built to very precise specifications so the water would flow at a precise rate from the source into the cities they served.

The remains of many aqueducts are still standing. These aqueduct bridges represent only a tiny part of the mostly hidden length of the aqueduct and were constructed to bridge gaps where the terrain would not allow the continuation of the underground channel.

In Segovia, Spain, the remains of the aqueduct bridge illustrate another Roman innovation that allowed them to build larger and do it gracefully at the same time the Roman arch. The arch is an engineering marvel with a visually artistic appeal. Building sand other structures could now be built on an unprecedented scale, worthy of  an empire. The aqueduct and arch embody the overall characteristics of the art and architecture of Rome simple, elegant, functional.

Roman concrete was invented at around the same time as the birth of the empire and was another crucial factor in allowing them to build the monumental structures that Rome is Famous for. The Pantheon was originally built in the early first century AD, destroyed by fires twice, and then rebuilt in its present form by the Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. The Pantheon was the largest dome on earth for over 1800 years and remains the largest unreinforced concrete dome. More impressively, it is still in use today. It is the culmination of roman engineering innovations, architecture, and artistic elegance.    

The Pantheon may be seen as an example of Roman work whose purpose went beyond its practical function, if only slightly. The enormous 2.5 meter high head of Constantine the Great (306-337) that was once part of a statue 12 meters high is a good example of the scale that imperial art had grown to and whose construction was definitely beyond any practical purpose (other than unabashed propaganda). Another, even better example is the recently unearthed heads of  the Emperor Hadrian (r.117-138) and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r.161 to 180) at an archaeological excavation of a public bath in Turkey. Each head is 5 meters tall and they each must have rested on bodies that were an astounding 24 meters high. Clearly, these monumental images of the emperors are evidence of the reverence given to and demanded by the emperors of the imperial age.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum in hot mud and ash, perfectly preserving the towns and giving us an unprecedented glimpse into daily Roman life and art they surrounded themselves with, literally. Wall paintings, perfectly preserved when excavated, adorned many of the houses of ancient Pompeii and the smaller, neighboring town of Herculaneum and were made in the years between the second century BC up until close to the time of the eruption in 79AD. Because these years bridge the republican and imperial periods, we can document the differences in styles of the respective periods and draw some conclusions about the way societal forces influenced Roman art. The Pompeian murals,or frescoes, utilized a technique where paint is applied to wet plaster (or similar material) so the paint literally becomes part of the wall. The subjects of the paintings are varied. Imitation marble, scenes from classical mythology, still life, and paintings of windows displaying imaginary scenes designed to make a small room feel larger are only a few examples of some of the subject-matter, but certainly not a complete list. The murals are classified into four categories. The first two styles are of the republican period and reflect a reserved and modest character. The first style, also known as the architectural or encrustation style imitates the various building materials common for their day Marble, brick, and mortar. It is a modest style with an economical function that fits well with the character republican Rome. The second style uses simple perspective to the give the illusion of a larger space than it really was. One example is a painting of a window looking over a architectural scene that uses perspective to give the illusion of depth and distance.1 The second style appears at around 90 BC and demonstrates a mixture of the old republican values and imperial expansion that is quickly enlarging Romes holdings at this time. It is of the republics character in its resourceful use of art to perform the addition of a new window without all the noise and sawdust. This style of art is also is a manifestation of the periods tendency to acquire of and desire for new territory general some of the first hints of Roman expansion expressed through art. The next two styles are from the very early empire may be interpreted as more lavish and ornate. It is not a coincidence that the more elaborate styles become more prevalent during the early empire they are an expression of the greatness that Augustus has made of himself , the empire, and the people privileged to be under his rule. The use of illusion is gone in the third style.

The fourth style is described as
Characterized as a  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiBaroquebaroque reaction to the Third Styles mannerism, the Fourth Style in   Roman wall painting (ca. 20 79) is generally less disciplined than its predecessor. It revives large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas, while retaining the architectural details of the Second Style. In the Julio-Claudian phase (ca. 20 54), a textile-like quality dominates and tendrils seem to connect all the elements on the wall. The colors warm up once again, and they are used to advantage in the depiction of scenes drawn from mythology.

These  scenes drawn from mythology  serve to emphasize and embellish Romes place in classical mythology. One fresco depicts Chiron teaching Achilles to play the lyre. Chiron was a gifted centaur who tutored many of the classical heroes. Achilles was the greatest warrior of the Trojan War. This scene also reminds us that Chiron tutored another great hero of the Trojan War and the founder of Rome Aeneas. The Aeneid, written by the poet Virgil during Augustus reign, tells the story of the hero Aeneas and some of his fellow Trojans adventures after the Trojan War and ultimately founding Rome.

The influence and character of Rome can be also seen in the the thematic styles of Pompeian interior decoration. A popular theme painted in the early period of Augustus rule is an Egyptian one. The conquest of Octavians rivals Marc Antony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium, coupled with Egypts annexation as a province of Rome, inspired great interest in anything Egyptian. The people of Rome were exposed to numerous novel cultures and more worldly than ever thanks to the imperial acquisition -or subjugation- of new provinces directly influencing Roman art with an influx of foreign art as was the case with  Egypt-mania  in the art of Pompeii. As the Roman republic came to an end and the empire began, we can witness in the styles of Pompeian fresco a pattern of increasing lavishness the reflected the increasing decadence that grew in direct proportion to the power of the empire.

Sculpted portraits were popular in both republican and imperial Rome In republican times, the portrait bust was an important object that heralded the virtues of military and civic achievements of their ancestors.  The social position of the family was partially determined by the public service and military triumphs of its ancestry. These portraits were very lifelike and, although idealized, they included wrinkles and other imperfections that demonstrates a least a measure of modesty present in Romans of the republic that would be less common in imperial times. These portraits were used promote the specific family the portrait belonged to, celebrate republican roman virtues such as civic duty, and show veneration for the dead. These functions will change somewhat in the imperial period.

There is a new style and purpose for portraiture in the imperial period starting with Augustus. The image of Augustus in sculpture, on coins, and scenes depicted in relief display an idealized image of  the emperor in the Hellenistic tradition. His youth, beauty, and strength are emphasized and this model is distributed through out the empire as the model to be used by artists depicting Augustus. The friends and benefactors of the imperial family would create statues of themselves that looked remarkably similar to that of the idealized emperors and imperial family and served to associate and ingratiate themselves with the emperors. Succeeding emperors will recognize the power of propaganda these portraits can have, whether chiseled into stone or stamped onto a coin. The legitimacy of their rule, their beneficence, and the power they and their empire have over its subjects can all be conveyed through the imagery of the emperors. This is a departure from republican Rome and its disdain for unelected rulers.

The change in the character of Roman art as it changed from a republic to an empire is demonstrated by these few examples of sculpture, painting, and architecture outlined in this paper. The Romans have left us so much more in artistic glassware, mosaic, and literature. Their imaginative creations of art reflect the character of their society, their values, and the upheavals  the people endure can be traced through studying Roman art. This is true of any society, not just ancient Roman culture. Art is the expression of  a cultures, any and every cultures, core values, beliefs, and even their short comings as human beings. Studying art is a wonderful way to learn about ancient civilizations, our present world, and every time and place in between. Not only can will you learn historical facts by studying art, but you can come to understand the more abstract and intangible facets of a culture or society that cannot be quantified with a date or name. It is in this way that studying art can give you insight into the extra dimensions of a civilization only revealed through art.

Louis Joseph Watteaus The Storm is more of a romantic painting while Eugene Delacroixs The sea of Galilee is more of a neo-classical painting.

Let me begin with Watteaus The Storm. This painting is a romantic work of art because of the general effect that its appearance brings to its onlookers. The storm is not yet present it is only foreboding of its eventual coming. Half of the portions of the clouds are still filled with some sunny light but the other half was already covered with some dark clouds, signifying the threat of an upcoming storm.

Below the clouds, we see some people working, doing some farm work while the weather is still quite good and the storm is not yet pouring. They are maximizing the time doing what needs to be done as perhaps they cannot afford to put off the peasants work. Looking more closely at the painting, we will see that what unassumingly takes the center of the canvas is a tree that is slightly tilted and is seemingly bald with the verdure of luscious leaves. The fading light of the sun reflects itself on the awkwardly standing tree, emphasizing its lanky stems and its listless stature.

From what we can see on the surface, this painting by Watteau typifies the characteristics of a Romantic painting and the moods of the Romantic Movement in general. The Romantic Ideal frolics and jubilates on the meadows of individualism, emotions and nature. It also promotes the subjective moods of the individuals and the eschewal of reason in favor of intuition and imagination. The Romantic Movement, whether in literature or visual arts, is said to have three primary cults the cult of the individual, the cult of emotion and the cult of nature. It is a reaction towards the rapid rise of Science which espoused rational and utilitarian thinking. Specifically, it stemmed from the abrupt social change which was trail blazed by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The movement called for a retreat towards nature to regain the loss substance of humanity which was caused by the arrival of machines and other technologies. The Romantic also looks into the human nature  the human tendencies and behaviors and his reactions towards his surroundings. While science tried hard to explain the origins of things and the rationale of their existence, the Romantics focused on mans experience and his engagement with the world where he resides. The Romantic also probes the folk culture, the national and ethnic origins, the exotic, the occult and the diseased  the areas which Science and rational thinking consciously chose to avoid.

In The storm, we can notice that the focus is not on the people but on the images of nature  the awkwardly standing tree and the clouds. There is an element of being diseased in the people, as they were toiling hard for their livelihood. However, this element was put into the background as we were more primarily led to notice the bleak image of nature. Despite the threats of an upcoming storm, as visualized in the appearance of the clouds, the people keep on working. The striving of the people only depicts the endless struggle between the intention to achieve perfection and the limitations of man. Even though the people know that a storm is forthcoming, they do not stop from working until it arrives.

The cult of nature is likewise evident. In this insular setting, we can see nature stripped off extravagant portrayals. This is nature at its barest form. There were not so many colors in fact the hues of brown and orange were the dominant hues in this picture. The painting limns nature as it is, without exaggerations and attempts to be swanky.

Meanwhile, Sea of Galilee is a Neoclassical painting as looking at it will likely bring into mind the paintings of the Classical times. It is reminiscent of the visual arts existent during the times of Ancient Greeks and Romans.

What we can see in this work of Delacroix is a dark background and a seemingly fragmented landscape. The group of people riding the ship was marked by a sense of defeat as the ship was faltering against the ravaging weather. The sails are beginning to get shattered as it travels below the dark clouds and above the dark grey ocean. The people in the ship are trying their best to save themselves and the ship they are riding. Obviously, they were facing a tough situation and in order to triumph, an earnest, concerted effort must be put.

The neoclassical painting goes back to the lost luminescence of the Classical paintings during the Ancient civilization. It incorporates every element that can be possibly used to recast the Classical. They reused the Classical styles, recalled the Classical themes and reinterpreted the Classical subjects. By doing that, they lead in pushing forth the resurgence of the loss tradition and rendering them in slightly new, and better forms. With the advances in techniques and artistic devices, the Neoclassical extends the Classical by attempting to render their arts and make their interpretations of their subjects in a more accurate manner. Majority of these subjects have references to history and mythology.

As we can see in this dominantly dark painting, there is much emphasis on the quality of lines that the elements of color and atmosphere were quite downplayed. It also has a tendency to appear as simplistic as possible. We can see the elements of the people, the straggling ship with its breaking sails and the dark sea. With just three elements incorporated in the painting, it was able to convey a strong idea  mans being caught in the thick of a wide adventure that is life and encountering tough challenges where a mettlesome character is needed to attain victory.

Introduction
Art fairs have become the new aggregator of the twenty-first century art world. In 2009, there were 275 art fairs scheduled around the world, compared to 55 in 2001. Art fairs have evolved their identity from venues where collectors buy artworks to cultural events where all art-world-players, such as artists, dealers, curators, critics, museum directors, collectors, and general audience gather for exchanging ideas and enjoying arts. This transformation is attributed to their marketing and communication practices designed to satisfy the needs and interests of the audience. In addition to the basic marketing strategy, branding, visual strategy, educational and public programs and sponsorship are used as tools enhancing the accessibility and visibility of art fairs. This article examines those practices that art fairs carry out currently and studies essential strategies in tomorrows world.

The new environment of art fair
In todays social and media environment, visual arts presenters have difficulties in attracting audiences and customers. Though the number of consumers of visual arts has soared due to education and affluence, expanded entertainment and leisure industries like cinema, sporting events, and the like are threatening the current picture. Besides, the client demography of art business has been rapidly changing because of globalized market and wealth growth from all parts of the world. It includes groups from the young and from the emerging market in Russia, Asia, and Middle East. Moreover, the advent of electronic media has altered the way people communicate and acquire information. The influence of existing media like TV and newspaper has decreased. In the flood of information in the mass media, Internet is viewed as the new platform for sharing cultures and opinions such as social networking, blogs, and UCC. In this new circumstance, art fairs have adopted their communication and marketing strategy to reach a sufficient of number consumers.

Art fairs communication and marketing
In examining marketing and communication strategies, it is required to review the mission of art fairs because cultural marketing begins with the mission of the cultural enterprise. Art fairs have been designed explicitly as trade shows with profit goals. However, art fairs managed to reinvent themselves as new types of cultural events with the combination of commercial and cultural goals. Now, an art fair has a mission of promoting art, expanding in importance and position. To achieve this mission, the adopted strategic measures are the four Ps of marketing, branding process, visual strategy, public and educational programs and sponsorship.

The Four Ps of Marketing Product, Price, Place and Promotion
As every marketing strategy is composed of the same components, which are price, product, price, and promotion, they are critical in examining art fairs marketing. The major product of art fairs as trade shows are artworks and dealers. To obtain product quality, competition is very important. The dealers presenting at Art Basel came through a competition of 3 to 1 to get their vendors. Art fairs selecting committees even drop a well-known gallery if it did not bring exciting works or works that are fresh. While dropping outdated dealers, art fairs are enthusiastic about including emerging and young galleries from all over the world to adjust to a globalized and fast-changing world. In 2010, the dealer base of Art Basel will be from 36 countries on six continents.

Pricing is an important strategy for managing successful art fairs, which can be considered in two ways. First, admission fees for an art fair are effective because of the willingness of people to pay based on a tiered-ticket pricing. For example, tickets to enter the Armory Show at 5 p.m. cost 1,000, entry at 530 p.m. costs 500, and 7 p.m. costs 250. Second, pricing can also arise from the price points of artworks that dealers sell in the fair. While the Armory Show and Art Basel showcase more high-profile galleries, fairs like Scope and Pulse provide platforms for emerging galleries and appeal to younger collectors aiming to purchase their first piece of art.

Place is a significant factor in positioning. The major art fairs are scheduled in different cities and times. They build their own market as far away from each other as possible. However, satellite fairs use different placing strategies. They shadow major art fairs to take advantage of the visitors, their promotional efforts, and status.

Promotion is the last components of the 4ps. Each art fair has a promotion campaign in major international art and lifestyle media. Some fairs build partnerships with media sponsors, such as the New York Times, the International Herald Tribune, The Art Newspaper, and Art Forum, that guarantee extensive and worldwide reach. To be featured by more media, art fairs publish their press releases months earlier and the media campaign emphasizes the participating star artists and dealers. Marketing alliance of promotion among art fairs can also be seen easily where special promotional materials indicating schedules and locations are created.  

Art Fair and Branding
Encounters with branded art fairs entail expectations of high product or service quality. Branding is the art of communicating. Brand tells a persons identity and mission and plays an endorser role conveying credibility. There is a name game of branding in art fairs industry. The Armory Show benefits from the reputation of its name and evokes the 1913 Armory Show. Similarly, Frieze art fair is the branch of Frieze brand which started its business as the leading magazine of contemporary art and culture. Art Basel deals with its name differently. With a powerful brand that it has established, it presented a sister brand, Art Basel Miami Beach, which brought about a synergy effect. Art Basel could reinforce its brand image due to higher visibility, and ABMB easily built its market with less efforts. Yet, balancing of branding on the global and local level was the key of success. ABMB has different features from Art Basel. To utilize geographical positioning, ABMB has received a large influx of exhibitors from Latin America.

Visual strategies Prints and Graphic Designs
To build distinctive image, art fairs use visual strategies such as brand logos and certain graphic design scheme. The recent design trend of fairs logo involves highlighting the name with its signature color and font, which helps in suggesting themes to be either elegant, modern, old-fashioned, and delicate. Also, repeated usage of the same visual image help increase recognition of art fairs. Once the visual identity is established, it is featured across many different media. For example, ABMBs dot printed graphic with a pink color Scheme is so distinctive that we know that it is ABMB even before seeing its logo.

The Experience Economy of Art Fair Educational and Public Program
Art fairs experimental marketing allows it to be connected to the customer in a memorable experience. Educational and public programs are effective ways for visitors to engage and integrate. For instance, lectures and forums can change audience from a mere visitor to a role player by offering first-hand information on important aspects of the international art world. The surprising success of ABMB can be understood in the context of experience economy. ABMB provides customer with experience surrounding a buying art pleasant weather, fun atmosphere of beach, non-stop parties, music concerts, artists discussion, and keynote lectures. Influenced by ABMB, the Armory Show launched its public program in 2010.

Sponsorship
Affiliated sponsors are carefully chosen in order to maintain the image of art fair. Association with well-established brand names attracts the public attention. When supported by corporations, art fairs arranged the numerous paybacks including publicizing a corporations name in promotional materials and offering invitation tickets. The strong relationship between UBS and Art Basel is a representative example of corporate sponsorship. They are a major platform for demonstrating our commitment to art, and they give us international exposure, says Anton Glogger of UBSs global-sponsoring department. In conjunction with sponsors, various VIP services can be offered by art fairs. The significant marketing effect generated competitions. Deutsche Bank has signed as a lead sponsor of art HK, already supporting Frieze Art Fair Cologne fairs. ING bank is sponsoring Art Brussels.

The evaluation
Through communication and marketing strategies, art fairs developed their services and experiences that increased attendance and popularity. Art fairs have become lively, vivid and interesting cultural events. However, expansion of roles and activities resulted to tradeoffs. The success of art fairs generated its proliferation. In the first week of March, there are a number of satellite fairs to coincide with the Armory show, including Scope, Pulse, Volta, Pool, Fountain, Red Dots, Independent, Verge, and Critical Design. This epidemic of fairs has created fair fatigue. An art consultant, Thea Westreich said, its virtually impossible to see everything.. A lot of the art will not be seen by a critical audience.

The growing size of art fairs also generated problems. The great number of booths in a limited space tends to make it look like a commercial space. They have been described as the best example of seeing art in the worst way. In 2010, The Armory Show expanded to include 285 dealers - 50 more than last year, which created a terrible viewing experience because of awkward floor plan, excessive bright lighting, bad acoustics, awkward floor plan, and dearth of food and drink. Improvement efforts from art fair management are only directed at the VIP-designated lounges.

The ineffective use of Internet is another weakness point in terms of communications. Web contents are scarce and designs are clumsy. There is a gap between how people wish to use the Web page and how it is actually designed. Most of them scanned any new pages they came across. In websites of art fair, there are just a few visual images, and lots of texts describing how excellent they are. Besides, the web page did not develop their channel to communicate with the audience.

How Art Fairs Reach Tomorrows Audience
Approaching tomorrows audience in changing world, art fairs should develop techniques with awareness for its economic, social, cultural and media environment. In the competitive market, with over 250 art fairs in the world, it should find its niche in the marketplace. The culture and commerce of the 21st century are about niches. There is no more monopoly of hits and the demand of niches market has been growing consistently. It is hard to enjoy fairs like Art Basel with 300 galleries to visit or when you form a part of the swarm of 210,000 visitors to ARCO. The small and clearly positioned fairs hosting 40 to 60 galleries will remain in the collectors mind.

 To complete fairs experience, art fairs need to enhance their physical environment. Spatial-architectural dimension can be developed with the help of architect designers and multidisciplinary staffs. Art fairs can generate more comfortable and fresh atmosphere. Otherwise, physical and visual manipulation such as color accents can help people find their ways in endless corridors full of booths and enjoy the artworks and to find their ways in endless corridors full of booths.

Art fairs should actively take advantage of new media digital implementations. More viewer friendly and communicative web sites should be built. This not only increases the visibility to younger generation who newly entered art market, but also enables art fairs to overcome the limited physical accessibility of short-term events. Also, art fairs should activate their blogs or social networking sites in order to be accessible to tomorrows audience. They already have Twitters or Facebook, but the usage remains relatively low. Posting a viral video, empowering directors or staffs to write blogs, and responding user-generated-contents can be effective strategies.

Conclusion
It is required for art fairs marketing and communication strategies to be developed in todays fast evolving world. The new media environment and the diversification of consumer base altered art fairs practices. They adopted diverse strategies such as the marketing mix, branding, visual strategy, public relations, and sponsorship. Yet, the art fairs strategies are still weak in that they showed complacent attitude to the new social, cultural, economical circumstances.

Parthenon is considered the most important surviving historical structure of modern Greece. Present Parthenon is a reconstruction of older Parthenon which was constructed in 438 BC and, was demolished during Persian Invasion in 480 BC. The Parthenon stood as a symbol of Greek liberty, culture, and honor. It saw the rise, fall and revival of Greece. Initially serving the purpose of both temple of goddess Athena and state treasury, Parthenon was turned into a Church and then a mosque following Ottoman-Turk invasion. During Turk rule, Parthenon confronted several adversities. A large part of it was blown while bombardment by Venetians. The attack was severed by the stored Turk ammunition inside the temple. Later, several parts from Parthenon were carved out and sold to British Empire by Lord Elgin. These unrecoverable pieces were loaded and transferred through ships to England. One of the ships sank while transporting these structures. Parthenon is an irreplaceable cultural heritage of Greece that has been abused since its inception. Recent Government initiatives provide a ray of hope for its restoration.

Parthenon was constructed by Pheidias, a famous Greek sculptor, to house the 38 feet tall gold and ivory statue of goddess Athena. Parthenon derives its name from Virgin Athena. Athena is the goddessof wisdom, arts and crafts, and war(MacKillop, 2004). Athena also represents civilization and virginity .Her replicated image is a symbol of Greek struggle through times and, its firm belief in justice. According to Greek mythology, Athena was the daughter of planet Mercury and Titan ruler Metis, the most knowing and, Zeus the overseer of the universe. Zeus become afraid of bearing a supremely powerful offspring from Metis and, therefore embodied Metis in himself. However, Metis kept bringing Athena secretively inside him and one day Athena came out from Zeus head. According to some psychologists, domineering Patriarchic systems suppressed Athenas feminine attributes. J.J. Bachofen advocated that Athena was originally a maternal figure stable in her security and poise but was caught up and perverted by a patriarchal society (Bachofen, n.d). The statue of Athena was completely destroyed during attack by Venetians. In both physical and psychological parameters, the statue faced assaults and contradictions.

Demolished statue of goddess Athena has been reconstructed by some through historical descriptions. Museum at Toronto displays one of the sculptures. Statue of Athena holds a winged icon in her right hand displaying victory over enemies. The helmet on her head is decorated with a sphinx figure and griffins. Athenas chest bears a crafted shield with a snake on the inside. This serpent represents religious origin of Athenians. Her footwear consist carvings of war between Gods, giants, Athenians and Amazons. It is said that a water pool was constructed in front of the statue that reflected the statue in indirect light.

Architecture of Parthenon is incomparable in its distinctive design and intricate detailing. Athenas temple, Parthenon was built by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates on a limestone foundation on Acropolis. Doric order reached its culmination in Parthenon. The building was constructed with extreme refinement where even the slight curvatures in stylobate, naos and entasis matched. Stylobate is the topmost step of crepidoma, the bottom stepped platform of Parthenon, Naos is the enclosed cell of the temple and, Entasis is the slight bulge in columns.

Fig 1 Plan of Parthenon
A procession path was made between internal and external column for worship of the deity. Many of Parthenons proportions are constructed in Golden ratio and the building is known for its corrected optical illusions. The Parthenons facade as well as elements of its facade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiGolden_rectangle o Golden rectangle golden rectangles(Mersbergen, 1998).It is an octostyle temple with Doric columns and Ionic features. The Octostyle temples are rare in Greek history. Frieze running continuously on top is finely carved depicting festivals, celebrations and sacrificial offerings to goddess Athena. There are 72 metopes in the temple which display mythical battles in their carvings. Upper triangular portion above the columns is pediment. Moldings are placed at the ends of pediments. Internal sculptured triangular area in pediment is called tympanum. It consists of Greek and Roman mythological figures and bright colors.

 INCLUDEPICTURE httpwww.shafe.co.ukcrystalimageslshafeParthenon_Longitudinal_Section.jpeg  MERGEFORMATINET
Fig 2 Sections of Parthenon

During Ottoman Turk Empire, Lord Elgin distributed elements from Parthenon to foreign countries. Nicholas says that about half of the surviving works are now in London, while museums in France, Germany, Austria and Denmark also own small fragments (Paphitis, 2008). Like Parthenon, Greece was attacked and destroyed several times that influenced its culture which now carries essence from many of its rulers, including Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman. During invasions most of the cultural heritage was lost or badly damaged. Parthenon in its injured yet firmly standing state depicts the culture and history of Greece.

The New York Times editor says that throughout the history, the Parthenon friezes have been hostages to Christianity, to Islam, to the diplomatic tensions between France and England during the Napoleonic era. But they have also become hostages of affection, of a profound love for their dynamism and grace, for the clarity of vision they embody. And, hostages they remain (Return the Parthenon marbles, 2002).

Government of Greece is supplementing several programs to restore Parthenon. Restoration process was initiated in year 1975. Under restoration, the Government planned to recover its distributed marbles and, reconstruct the damaged ones. One part was recovered from Italy but, its major components still remain with British museum. Talks between two countries are still on with no apparent resolution in near future. However, reconstruction has been successful. In the year 1999, the Government issued  5.7 billion dollars for the project. Its damaged columns were lowered and repaired Many of its parts that were damaged by acid rain have been treated. The restoration was completed in May this year.

Parthenon is an extremely important contribution not only to the Greek society but also to the world architecture therefore, adequate efforts at regional, national and international levels should be made to save this monument. It can be brought back to its previous grandeur with international cooperation and Government initiatives. Cultural heritage of nations represent their souls and it is very important to keep them intact.

In her article A Shark in the Mind of One Contemplating Wilderness, Terry Tempest Williams effectively defines what an art is and what is not. It goes beyond its traditional definition as a product of human creativity in which materials are outlined and selected to convey visually interesting forms. Williams reveals the ongoing battle within the biodiversity  human versus nature  and equates human life to the characters in the wild to create a vivid description of Art.

Like a shark suspended in formaldehyde and being viewed as a unique work of art, Williams sees the same scenario for human beings when nature is totally devastated.

Whos to blame The increased level of extinction that is likely to lead to the disappearance of
about two-thirds of all kinds of living organisms by the end of the next century is driven by only
(Your last name) 2one species human (Raven 4).

Human is inseparable from nature. His survival depends inextricably on other life forms. Life is the common force that connects man to animals. Williams recognizes this connection through an encounter with a shark in a tank, I press my hands on the glass, waiting for the shark to pass by again, and when it does I feel my own heart beating against the mind of this creature that kills. However, this bond is unfastened little by little by mans activities that are detrimental to the nature.

Civilization overwhelms man that he neglects the reality that his existence rests on the subsistence of the natural world. Rather than protecting his source of life, he becomes the author of its destruction. Logging and mining, whether legal or illegal, are two of the most common damaging human activities. For pharmaceutical companies, Wilderness is a cabinet of pharmaceuticals waiting to be discovered.

Taking her own experience where an open space once used by children to lie on their backs was now converted to a food court, Williams realized how fast people can transform something into another thing. Quoting her observation, What was never before seen as art, as dance, as a painting in motion, but imagined only through the calculations of biologists, their facts now metamorphosed into designs. Just imagine how man has gotten so much from the nature and exploited a very huge part of it. As Williams noted, The natural world is becoming invisible, appearing only as a backdrop for our own human dramas and catastrophes. Landslides, flashfloods, earthquakes, and tornadoes are signs that nature is too much burdened of mans destructive activities.

Wilderness is a work of art. People shape this natural wasteland just like how an artist
(Your last name) 3

makes a mosaic. The development of agricultural lands into subdivisions, the burning of forests to produce industrial materials, and even the changing color of water in the rivers from blue to black, reflect how an artist designs and colors his work. What is true for wilderness remains true for humans. Human society is the mosaic of field and forest, of city blocks, of subway tiles. It is to this mosaic that we should turn in order to understand what it really means to be human (Amato-Grill 5).
Like humans, other forms of life need a habitat where they can build their own community. We are animals, in search of a home, in relationship to Other, an expanding community with a mosaic of habitats, domestic and wild, Williams explained.

In the same way that we have seen performances on stage, we have set our eyes on how the leaves of the trees dance in the wind, how animals hide and catch their prey, how whales and fishes create waves in the oceans, and how flowers patiently wait for its bud to bloom. Wilderness, according to Williams, is a grand piece of performance art that can embody or inspire. To preserve them is to let the next generation witness the grand performance arts of nature.

The nature is a work of art itself creatively designed and created by its Artist. It is a spring of inspiration for the artists who are also masterpieces of the One who created the nature. Art, as implicitly described by Williams on her article, is the exploration yet preservation of these natural creations.

One of the most significant artists that had transformed art in America is Paul Czanne, a French painter recognized as a genius in the world of painting and dubbed as the Father of Modern Arts. His contributions to Modernism had been profound especially to the artists of the early 20th century. A revisit on Czannes works would reveal how his talent and creative works have touched several artists and have produced a prominent technique that is famed internationally. This French artist has inspired several artists who personally took the initiative of introducing Czanne to the world and giving him the appropriate recognition he deserved.

Featured in the Baltimore Museum of the Arts (BMA) is the traveling exhibition of Czanne and American Modernism. The current exhibit displays some of the most amazing works of Czanne and offers visitors of the museum a very interesting tour on the developments of American modern art.

This is the first exhibit specifically attributed for the French artist. BMA already owns two of Czannes most impressive works but the traveling exhibition includes other works from different museums and private collections throughout the land. All in all, the exhibit features 16 of his works, among this is his painting entitled Self-Portrait with Beret and other significant archival materials that document the success of Czannes career as an artist.

Along with Czannes works, the exhibit also showcases the works of more than 30 American artists that were intensely inspired by the French master. Some of the names of artists whose works are part of the exhibition include Max Weber, Man Ray, Maurice Prendergast, and Arshile Gorky. More than 80 oil paintings, photographs, and watercolors are part of the traveling exhibit. While viewing each work available in the exhibition, one could assess that these art pieces symbolize how Czanne had inspired artists of different backgrounds to experiment and try modern techniques or undertake new ways if abstraction.

Czannes works are mostly about landscapes, bathers, profiles, and still life. It can be observed from the artworks that some of his best inspirations are the tranquil landscapes of French countryside. And since the exhibit highlights the great impact that Czanne has on American modern art, several comparisons are observable from the collection of works present in the gallery. Every artist that is part of the exhibit had their on distinct interpretation of Czannes style and technique. Like the French masters works, most of these artists paintings featured people bathing, landscapes, and still life creations. Although, it can be observed from the exhibit that these featured artists have also infused their own version of American Modernism. In some of the artists works, most Czannes original effect is already almost lost in the whole interpretation.

All the same, the collection of oil paintings, watercolors, and photographs on the exhibit are surreal and very unique. Also, knowing that these masterpieces have inspired a number of artists makes them more appealing and interesting to observe. With the variety of masterpieces carefully organized in the museum, the whole exhibit could make the visitors feel that Czanne transformative and inspiring art are really powerful visionary pieces that are important to the whole history of American modern art and the idea of modernism of art around the world.

BMAs special exhibition was really effective in depicting how Czanne introduced European Modernism to the American artists. Visitors of the museum are most likely to enjoy the quality of works that are compiled together in the exhibit plus the relevant information and realities they offer to people. The entire exhibit features some of the best works Czanne plus almost three decades of artwork released after his death that documents how much he had influenced American arts.

The exhibit clearly presented how American modern art was inspired immensely by the French masters works. It also made a mark in describing the personal profile and artistic contributions of Czanne in the world of art. More than comparing the resemblances between Czanne and those artists he had influenced, the exhibit aims for its audience to understand the development and molding of American Modernism and the redefinition of post-impressionist beauty.

The whole exhibit could make visitors of BMA feel the raw talent and visions for the future of art and what potential American modernism has for contemporary artists. Maybe the location or the arrangements of the artworks are also significant to the atmosphere and ambiance that the exhibit encourages. As a whole, the Czanne and American Modernism exhibit follows the layout that effectively presents the remarkable impact of the French master to the art of America, particularly in the western areas.

Compiling a number of Czannes works and the art pieces done by artists that were inspired by him is a difficult but immensely insightful plan. It was really a good thing that the exhibit successfully came to be. The whole exhibit was co-organized by the Montclair Art Museum and BMA and could be viewed in Baltimore from February 14 to May 23, 2010. Some people might feel that one downside of the exhibit would probably that there are too many works displayed. Aside from the 16 masterpieces of Czanne, the exhibit features more than 30 artists and there are a few artists that were overly represented. This is a disadvantage for some because, at some point, the paintings of the other artists tend to overcrowd the masters original works. But the organizers of the traveling exhibit have appropriately arranged the other artists works according to how they can be suitably compared to the masterpieces of Czanne.

People can learn many insightful and important things when visiting an art museum and BMA offers free of charge for their other exhibits. But this traveling exhibition is special event so an admission charge for the tickets was required. Despite the cost, the exhibit is still accessible to people and remains highly endearing because it includes complimentary audio tours for both adults and kids. People who will visit the exhibit will not be disappointed not only because the exhibit is both aesthetically pleasing, but also because it is intellectually stimulating especially in highlighting the role played by Czanne in the field of art.

Through his art, Czanne influenced the styles, themes, and artistic possibilities of American Modernism. Art is constantly evolving and with its growth also comes the introduction and integration of cultures from one continent to another.  Featuring Czanne and American Modernism in the BMA is really great because these collections of art works are worth seeing and should be indulged into. Despite the critically large amount of works by other artists present in the gallery, the exhibit depict the development of modern art and influences of the great artist Czanne in the most interesting and easy to appreciate way. A visit to this traveling exhibition is really worth it.

David Carrier starts his article by explaining the powerful and unique experience an art museum offers its visitors. Unlike in a historical textbook which only contains stories of the past, a photograph which presents still and lifeless images, or a movie that shows mere reenactment of historical accounts with the use of improvised props or sometimes make-believe gadgets, an art museum allows one to be immersed in an important historical event through the art collection it houses. Every piece of artwork in a museum is a treasure it tells of a distinctive culture and a rich story which a visitor can be a part of.

Carrier goes on to describe this experience as a form of imaginative time travel or going back to the time and place these artworks existed. For example, Carrier cited, a visitor can peak into the real story of Jesus Christs last meal with his apostles through Nicolas Poussins work, The Last Supper. Similarly, Jacques  Louis Davids Death of Socrates lets a visitor experience Socrates last few moments on Earth without having to travel thousands of years back in history.

Then, Carrier introduces the museum skeptics  people who take a rather adversarial view on museums. For them, an art museum is exactly the opposite of what people think of it. Rather than protecting precious works of art, museums actually destroy them by taking them out of their context and by moving them away from the objects that are closely associated with them. Artworks are robbed of their purity and authenticity by placing them within the four walls of the museums.
While museum skeptics recognize that museums are able to physically preserve old objects, they believe that museums are unable to preserve these objects true relevance and symbolism. Worse, efforts to restore an artwork to its original state have transformed it to a completely different object, though sometimes cleaner and more attractive, making it lose its personality altogether.  

This view can be compared to what animal protection activists think of zoos. People think that by putting animals in a cage, they are able to protect them more and preserve their species. On the contrary, activists think that people are doing the animals more harm than good by taking them out of their natural habitat where they are supposed to learn survival techniques and be with other animals. No matter how hard zoo owners try to imitate the animals natural habitat, it is just never the same. As a consequence, animals lose their true identity and authenticity.

Museum skeptics also argue that the actual architecture of the museum contributes to its ineffectiveness to function as the true guardian of art and history. Some museums, for example, have been badly affected by signs of modernization and urbanization such as construction of new roads and other infrastructure. In some cases, museums have become so commercialized that people see them as places to eat, hang out with friends or watch a concert instead of as sacred institutions. This development has then affected the way people view artwork. They no longer think of an artwork as a valuable object that gives a reflection of the past, but rather as a typical commercial item that is displayed for visitors to feast their eyes on.

Finally, museum skeptics believe that having museums means that true artistic sense and creativity is deteriorating. For them, artworks should be seen anywhere and everywhere, and not confined to buildings claiming to be stewards of art and history. They say it should be like before when there were no museums but art is in good health and creative vitality flourishes.