Art

The ancients Romans are known to have borrowed heavily from the Greeks in terms of artistic inspiration and techniques. This combined with their own indigenous artistic features forms what is termed as Greco- Roman art. The various art forms include Pottery, Sculpture, Paintings, Architecture and other art forms. The earlier subject matter was mostly geometric or abstract in nature and the later works include depiction of human figures. The subject matter chosen were mostly divine, mythological, animal figures and war scenes. The sheer beauty of the work of art, the symmetry and the choice of subject matter adds sheer delight to the onlooker and makes an interesting subject matter for study.

The choice of subject matter like human forms, horses, infantry men and the use of material like marble, terracotta and bronze are factors that are common to both Greek and Roman artworks. The penchant of the Greeks in portraying members from the higher echelons of the society, the royals and their army appears to have been emulated by the Romans as well. Both their Gods are depicted in human form, either as a tribute to the deceased or as a symbol of sacredness of the human body. Both the Greek and the Roman artists appear comfortable in their portrayal of nudity. The fact that their artworks have stood the test of time and continue to both thrill and inspire the artists of modern day is an interesting fact.

The ancient Greeks are known to have used pottery extensively in their everyday lives. Pottery was used as drinking vessels, as large wine cups and as bowls and jugs. Their pottery was finely shaped, symmetrical and often decorated with art. The themes are mostly depiction of human forms. The choice of colors was mostly limited and the work appears to be monochromatic.  The ranges of colors used in these paintings are mostly limited to black and red in combination with the natural light color of the pot. The artwork resembles the Red  figure Technique known to have been evolved by the Greeks in 5th Century BC. However the Siana Cup appears to be a combination of Red-Figure Technique and the Black-figure Technique. The pot is painted on the inside in black and on the outside the natural light color of the pot is seen with black and red figures represented on them. The term Siana refers to the decorative schemes, one in which the subject covers the upper exterior around the handles, and the other in which a large tondo or circular picture covers the bottom of the interior. The choice of complementary color for the background and the foreground makes the image stand out.

The Column Krater looks solid in appearance portraying the confidence of the artist in his craftsmanship. The elegance of the painting and the finesse of the artwork are in sharp contrast to the firmness of the object itself giving the Krater a sense of added beauty and mystery. The formwork is more organic and lucid in nature with the use of curves to define the outline of the human figures much in variation with the usual straight lines used by Greeks. The subject matter depicts a mood of celebration and joy Most probably this scene was selected due to the function of the vessel. A krater was used to mix wine and water for use at social gatherings. The main subject matter is depicted in the body of the vessel. The rims and the handles are decorated with fine engravings in black. Though the functionality or the usability of the pottery seems questionable owing much to the shape of the handles, the work stands out in its beauty and aesthetics. The sheen and finish is a classic example of the exemplary techniques the Greeks adopted in firing clay, though the colors are limited owing to the limitations in technology.

The roman art form especially sculptures mostly depicted human forms. The material choice is usually stone, marble in particular. The sculpture seems to have been sculpted from a single stone. The various proportions and the use of light and depth portray the understanding that the Roman artists had of the human anatomy. The bearded roman would fall under the Roman Portraiture category. The portrayal is realistic and natural without any artistic exaggeration added to it. The fineness of the artwork is displayed by the meticulous detailing of the facial hair and the hair on the head. The lines on the forehead and the way in which the facial muscles are captured indicate the portrayal of a middle aged man. A clear sense of symmetry is visible in their depiction. The face is rectangular or cubical in form and definitively male in its portrayal. The shape of the lips portrays a tightness or firmness perhaps indicating an impenetrable emotionality of the person depicted. The sculpture invokes a sense of seriousness on the viewer. The cubic structure conveys a sense of force and latent power in the image of the dictator-emperor, especially in combination with a firm, quiet expression, and the most typical public demeanor for emperors during the initial two centuries of the Roman Empire.

The early artwork appears to have worshipped the human form. The human body seems to have been considered as sacred. This is apparent in their depiction of Gods in human form. The Roman artists are bold and natural in their depiction of nudity. There is strangeness to the sculpture in the fact that though the sculpture was obviously meant to portray a nude image the artist has detailed some clothing on the upper part of the body. The human figure is muscular in a non-exaggerated fashion. The shape of the body, the muscles, the detailing of the knee and various other parts are clearly captured through varying depths flowing across the sculpture. The main subject matter is portrayed on a circular pedestal and a pole or a tree trunk connecting the base to the subject giving a sense of continuity to the sculpture.

The artworks chosen are a typical of the features of artworks of similar period from the Greco-Roman art framework. The choice of material, subject matter, the style and the techniques are similar to other works from the same period.

In the first piece, we have an example of 1-Point Linear Perspective. This is a drawing by Andrean Schiptjenko, which is unofficially titled closed space. This piece is displayed in the Galerie der Stockeregg in Switzerland.

Notice how the vanishing point is in the center of the rectangle. All the diagonal lines meet at this vanishing point. The diagonals above the eye level line slant downward toward the vanishing point and the diagonals below the eye level slant upwards toward it. Also, the vertical and horizontal lines get shorter, or recede toward the vanishing point.

The second piece is by David Godbold and is titled A few things I thought about while painting this, residing in the Kerlin Gallery, in Dublin, Ireland. This Cross Contour example uses brush strokes to indicate the different contours of the landscape and the various elements of the landscape, such as the ground, the sky and the trees. Cross-contour lines describe form and volume and reflect the movement of your eye in and around what you see.

This third piece, Hiroshi Sugimotos 017 Rei Kawakubo, resides in Gallery Koyanagi in Tokyo, Japan. This painting demonstrates the Chiaroscuro effect. The word Chiaroscuro basically means, light and dark, in Italian. These types of paintings generally use dark backgrounds with a spotlight on the figures in the paintings, such as the spotlight here, shown on the left side of the model. This type of contrast creates a powerful and dramatic effect.

This fourth piece, A History of the Heart in Three Rainbows 1.3-1.5, by Francesco Clemente, is held in the Deitch Projects in New York City. This artwork focuses on the biomorphic form. Biomorphic paintings and drawings depict shapes in organic form rather than geometrical. Notice how the man-made grid-like table cloth contrasts with the over-sized, organic sunflowers.

The fifth piece of art is an example of line variation by Aditya Pande. This particular painting is called,  and is held at the Nature MorteBose Pacia, in New Delhi, India. In this piece, Pande displays incredible line variation. There are all types thin, thick, flat, broad, straight, slanted, curved and spiral.

The three paintings included in this art analysis of female nudes are Venus and Adonis from the Italian Baroque style of painting, Grande Odalisque from the French Neo Classical style, and Le Dejeuner sur lHerbe from the 19th Century European Modern style.  Venus and Adonis is an oil painting on canvas by Flemish artist Peter Paul Reubens from the mid or late 1630s about 78 x 96 inches in size.  Here, the nude goddess Venus, assisted by Cupid, tries to restrain her mortal lover Adonis from setting off for the hunt, knowing that if he goes, he will be killed by a wild boar.  Grande Odalisque is an oil painting on canvas by French artist Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres from 1814 about 36 x 64 inches in size.  Here, the nude harem woman and the accessories around her invoke a sense of the sensuous Orient.  Le Dejeuner sur lHerbe is an oil painting on canvas by French artist Edouard Manet from 1863 about 82 x 104 inches in size.  Here, a nude woman and two fully clothed men are taking lunch on the grass together.  By comparing analyzing the varying styles of these paintings, one is able to gain insight to the significant similarities and differences between the paintings as well as the overall progression of art across time and cultures.

Style
These three paintings are good examples of each of the three art styles in question, namely Italian Baroque, French Neo Classical, and 19th Century European Modern.  Venus and Adonis exemplifies Italian Baroque painting in that there is a continuing fascination with classical antiquity, yet the nude female is actively seductive. The female nude took on fresh meaning in the art of Rubens, who, with apparent pleasure, painted his nude with generous figure and radiant flesh.  The Baroque taste for allegories based on classical metaphors also preferred undraped figures, which were used to personify ideals such as Love and Truth.  Grand Odalisque exemplifies French Neo Classicism in that Ingres rejected the classicism and lays the foundation for personal emotive expressiveness.  Here, an elegant female is lounges in a luxurious interior, creating a cool aloof eroticism accentuated by an exotic context.  Le Dejeuner sur LHerbe exemplifies the 19th Century Modern European style in that Manet has painted a nude woman among clothed men, as she tranquilly stares out to the audience (424).  During this time, many people were scandalized by the subject matter, which illustrates two men in contemporary cloths seated casually on the grass for lunch in the woods with a nude woman.

Similarities
There are significant similarities between the three works, which aim to link them together within a certain broader era and style.  All three female nudes share the enjoyment of being the central focus of each painting.  Their bare and brightly painted skin radiates light and catches the eye, while other aspects of the paintings are darker and less attractive.  As the central points of the paintings, the women serve to tell tales about their own personal sexuality as well as their broader cultural environments.  Following a time period when women were more reserved and took a sideline presence to the idea of male domination, these three paintings empower women in the sense that the females are presented as bold, erotic, and fascinating subjects who enjoy the spotlight of the intentions of the artists and the messages conveyed to the audience.  Each woman is painted with specific attention to the light which falls on her skin, making them all warm, vibrant, and strong characters within each work.
 
Differences
The differences between the three works are in the slight ways in which intensions of the artists and the messages to the audience shift in the ways in which each of the women is captured and illustrated within her unique environmental context.  The female nude from Venus and Adonis is a classical goddess, undraped and spotlighted because of her personal divine nature and allegorical embodiment of Love.  Her fleshy body is generous in curves, and her eroticism is slightly guarded by the fact that she represents a divine creature.  Moving from the classical divinity of Venus and Adonis is the honest emotionality of the nude woman of the harem in Grande Odalisque.  The exotic nature of the Oriental surroundings hints at a woman who is one woman of many to choose from.  She peers out to the audience with cool sensuality and a kind of guarded invitation.  Her mortality is a given and her Christianity is more than questionable, lending her an otherworldly and earthy allure.  Le Dejeuner sur LHerbe is even more scandalous than what is hinted at with Grande Odalisque.  Here, the naked woman is sitting between two men among a scattered luncheon in the woods.  One gets the impression that the men have just engaged in sexual play with her together.  Boldly, she looks out to the audience with no shame as to what has occurred between her and her male counterparts.

Assessment
Through the analysis of these three paintings, one is able to get an idea about the cultural shifts which occurred in Europe across the latter half of the last millennium.  Generally speaking, there was a certain shift from females being heralded as pure goddesses to female being heralded as mortal women with tendencies toward openness in sexuality.  There is an altering in the depiction of the female nude from a devoted and chaste image of classical divinity to a fresh and modern female nude who is self assured and unashamed of her earthy mortality.  While all three women in these paintings are central to the whole image and story being told, illuminated in light as the focal point of each painting, the core of each tale shifts from painting to painting, with an evolution of woman being increasingly regarded as more of a personally sexual and emotional individual, with daring tenacity in her desire to be seen and appreciated in her earthy sensuality.

September 2009 was marked with one of the most notable and most notorious thefts in the history of art  a collection of sport paintings by Andy Warhol was stolen from the LA home of a famous collector Richard L. Weisman. The collection, the value of which is difficult to estimate, simply disappeared without any hope for a return. However, just a decade ago the silkscreen paintings of the prominent sport figures made by Andy Warhol waited for the buyer to find them, and no one seemed interested in what Andy Warhol was trying to communicate to his audience. Today, art has become too unpredictable, too various, too changeable, and too transparent. The growing commercialization of art changes its nature and makes it impossible to understand the new criteria of quality in artistic expression. In present day environments, the quality and effectiveness of the artistic expression are defined by the amount of money, which the public is willing to pay for it as a result, art for the sake of art is no longer relevant, while artistic brutality and the open denial of conventional art values have already turned into perfect objects of commercialization.
   
That postmodern society is increasingly commercialized no one can deny, and the traits of commercialization are readily reflected in different forms of artistic expression, which postmodern artists tend to choose. Looking at the terribly naturalistic and even brutal graphic representations of Edgar Allan Poes works, which in no way reduce the scope of his literary talent, the society consciously uses his stories to attract additional profits. But if one of the goals of the show was to give kids exposure to gore and terror via art and literature  rather than by way of video games and slasher movies, may be it would have been better to distract kids from these horrors and to create a more pleasant representation of images from Poes stories This question is easy to answer horror and terror are never routine and thus can attract additional profits. This commercialization seems to have released the kind of artistic representation which for years had been suppressed by conventional norms and values of art. However, this very commercialization also imposes even stricter requirements on artists art should no longer be routine it should generate terror and gore, be brutal, naturalistic and unusual to the extent, which will make its consumers pay money to watch and possess it.
   
Such commercialization breaks conventional art at the seams and undermines the stability of conventional art norms. The cheap foam core models at the Whitney Museum, held to together with glue and pins also reflect this disruption of values and the failure of conventional art, but again, even the representation of these disruptions and failures aims to generate material profits. Even getting back to conservatism in museum exhibitions is justified by conservatism being fashionable, with predictable results. Even the value of Andy Warhols silkscreen paintings, the quality of which did not change over years, varies and depends on its monetary value which, under the influence of various market and art forces, is still bound to change. If not for the money which could have been paid for Warhols works, no one would ever remember him as one of the most prominent representatives of his age.
   
The growing commercialization of the postmodern society makes art unpredictable and changes its nature. Art is no longer for the sake of art rather, the quality of artistic presentation is measured by the sum of money, which the audience is willing to pay for it. This commercialization undermines the stability of conventional art values and breaks the value of traditional art. And even if some museums dare to go back to conservatism, these trends are not about preserving the historical value of art but are primarily justified by the commercial profits, which they can potentially generate.

Question 1
The relationship between art, religion and banking in Renaissance Florence was essentially one where art and the Church relied on the banking industry and the guilds for financial support.  Powerful banking families like the Medicis were bankers to the popes and lenders to the European monarch and established mercantile colonies throughout major cities in Italy and Europe. The bankers used their significant wealth and influence to patronize artists who produced religious artworks (featuring the bankers in a positive light) for the Church. According to Turner, this was an attempt to reconcile these old beliefs traditional Christian beliefs and new forms of behavior an increasingly secular society.

The economic boom also led to the creation of guilds to organize the mercantile and manufacturing industry. Guilds were highly specialized associations of professionals working in a recognized commercial enterprise. A guild basically created and set standards for their industry. These associations of master craftsmen and tradesman controlled the Florentine economic system, basically making up the infrastructure of the economy. According to Turner there were seven major guilds (Arti Maggiori), and fourteen minor guilds (Arti Minori). Since only members of the former were eligible for elective civic office, membership was essential to any man who aspired to public office. The guilds controlled society financially and politically by making it impossible for a man to practice any trade or advance his career without the support of a guild. The guilds also took on financial responsibility for the major churches and hospitals in the city, actively participating in religious activity and charity work.

The sheer wealth of Renaissance Florence may have made it a successful city-state, but its true success lay in successfully cultivating the myth of being culturally, religiously and financially supreme. Public art helped establish this notion of cultural superiority. Financial superiority was established quickly, and by promoting Florences Roman republic origins, as well as superb artistry, Florentine merchants cemented the notion of Florence being the ultimately superior city-state. Although it may have just been good public relations, Florence in reality was not only the financial hub it was an artistic and religious hub as well its great wealth supported artists like Boccaccio, and Giotto, and literary giants like Dante and Petrarch. It was also the site of numerous religious relics (such as the two Madonnas with alleged healing powers), which gave it spiritual superiority. Giorgio Vasari the mid-sixteenth-century artist and biographer of the artists, elevated this idea of Florientine supremacy in the visual arts to the canonical status it would enjoy for centuriesthe message was clear better to be Tuscan than Italian, and better yet to be Florentine than Tuscan. This finely tuned relationship between the bankers, guilds, art and religion made Florence the most successful city-state.

Question 2
Boccaccio began the Decameron with the Proem that discusses compassion and gives a detailed account of the effects of the Plague on Florentine society. Boccaccio defines compassion as a necessary force of humanity, especially if compassion is showed to the sick (more specifically, by those who have been ill previously, or received help for their ill relatives). Tis humane to have compassion on the afflicted and as it shews well in all, so it is especially demanded of those who have had need of comfort and have found it in others. Boccaccio then launches into describing the Plague, and how, as it swept through Florence, the Plague decimated men and women indiscriminately, wiping out rich and poor with no regard to their social standing. Boccaccio uses this account to illustrate how the Plague breaks down society, In this extremity of our citys suffering and tribulation the venerable authority of laws, human and divine, was abased and all but totally dissolved, for lack of those who should have administered and enforced them, most of whom, like the rest of the citizens, were either dead or sick, or so hard bested for servants that they were unable to execute any office whereby every man was free to do what was right in his own eyes. While some people retreat into religion, believing they will be saved by prayer, others lose all respect for the moral and social codes of conduct and indulge in any behavior they wish to, since they believe partying and pretending it does not exist will protect them from the Plague. 

Although the Proem is rather gory in its detail, the Decameron is dedicated to the entertainment of women of noble birth. Who will deny, that it should be given, for all that it may be worth, to gentle ladies much rather than to men Within their soft bosoms, betwixt fear and shame, they harbor secret fires of love, and how much of strength concealment adds to those fires, they know who have proved it. Moreover, restrained by the will, the caprice, the commandment of fathers, mothers, brothers, and husbands, confined most part of their time within the narrow compass of their chambers, they live, so to say, a life of vacant ease, and, yearning and renouncing in the same moment, meditate divers matters which cannot all be cheerful. Because the women lacked the same outlets as men for their desires and dreams, Boccaccio dedicated this book to them as a way of sympathizing with their plight.

Boccaccio goes on to describe women as more compassionate than men in the introduction of the first day. He calls women more compassionate than men because they were willing to care for men regardless of their social standing or state of health,  it came to pass--a thing, perhaps, never before heard of--that no woman, however dainty, fair or well-born she might be, shrank, when stricken with the disease, from the ministrations of a man, no matter whether he were young or no, or scrupled to expose to him every part of her body, with no more shame than if he had been a woman, submitting of necessity to that which her malady required wherefrom, perchance, there resulted in after time some loss of modesty in such as recovered. Besides which many succumbed, who with proper attendance, would, perhaps, have escaped death so that, what with the virulence of the plague and the lack of due tendance of the sick, the multitude of the deaths, that daily and nightly took place in the city, was such that those who heard the tale--not to say witnessed the fact--were struck dumb with amazement. The story that best illustrates a lack of compassion is in the tenth novel of the Tenth Day the story of Griselda. This story details how Griselda, a patient and virtuous woman of lesser means, is continuously tortured by her nobleman husband, who continuously tests her for her goodness. The husband does everything from asking her to kill her children to pretending to divorce her for a younger, wealthier woman. After Griselda endures this trial by fire, her only request is that her husband treats his second wife better than she was treated. The utter lack of compassion on the part of the husband in shaming and dehumanizing his wife is never punished, and Griseldas compensation is to be declared the most discreet woman and have her children and social station returned to her.

Question 3
Boccaccios story of Three Rings is an important humanistic statement because it asserts the equality of all men and religions, despite people lacking the foresight to realize this. By relating a parable of two pagans a Muslim and a Jew interacting honorably, Boccaccio was showing his Christian audience how pagans were wise and capable of compassion. good sense will extricate the wise from extremity of peril, and establish them in complete and assured peace. The ending of the Three Rings may illustrate the humanistic take-home message of equality, Each of these peoples deems itself to have the true inheritance, the true law, the true commandments of God but which of them is justified in so believing, is a question which, like that of the rings, remains pendent, but it does not illustrate a strong pro- or anti- stance on organized religion, except possibly to poke fun at the attitudes of religious people who believe their religion superior.

While the message of the Three Rings may be equality and compassion, the story of the monk and abbot criticizes the Christian Church by showing an example of corruption within the allegedly chaste and noble clergy.  To summarize the story, a lusty monk breaks his vow of chastity by having sex with a beautiful woman he encounters outside of his cloisters. He realizes the abbot of the monastery has discovered him, and in order to prevent being persecuted, tricks the abbot, who also breaks his vows and sleeps with this girl. When the abbot discovers the monk is aware of his infidelity, the abbot cannot punish the monk, and they essentially sweep the whole thing under the rug. The abbot, who was a shrewd man, saw at once that the monk was not only more knowing than he, but had actually seen what he had done nor, conscience-stricken himself, could he for shame mete out to the monk a measure which he himself merited. So pardon given, with an injunction to bury what had been seen in silence, they decently conveyed the young girl out of the monastery, whither, it is to be believed, they now and again caused her to return. Although this tale depicts moral corruption in the Christian Church critically, there is no inflammatory anti-Christian message in this story, nor proof of Boccaccios religious stance. Boccaccio was careful to express his opinion, avoiding making anti- or pro-Christian statements in any of his stories, despite having stated his opinion snidely in relating such stories. It was generally a very bad idea to appear atheistic or agnostic in the deeply religious Florentine society, so Boccaccio wrote the stories, but did not present his opinion overtly, so as to avoid religious persecution.

Compare and contrast two monuments in terms of the ways they respond to and are affected by their landscape andor urban settingwhat we might call site specificity.  How does understanding of the monuments location and orientation (to topographic features, other monuments, etc) expand our understanding of their significance, function, and the viewers experience of them

When it comes to analyzing ancient art and architecture, one must also study the time period and location of their discovery in order to truly comprehend how they functioned in previous civilizations.  While ancient ruins began to be discovered by modern archeologists, their placement and site locations often lent a hand in helping decipher what their purpose for creation was.    Consequently, rulers, in both ancient and modern times, used the landscape they dictated over to best show their dominion over art and nature.  Location became important to both properly display pieces to the most number of spectators, to remind spectators of important or pivotal aspects of the rulers society, or to help orientate the instability of the urban landscape.
King Djoser was one of the first known rulers of Egypt to command monumental architecture to be constructed in his name.  The plan for the funerary complex was structured on a level ground that incorporated the existing court of Serdab, the North Palace, and the large court of Saqqara.  The result was a gigantic funerary temple a six stepped mastaba made of limestone, towering over 200 feet in the air, and incorporated into the living quarters of the Egyptian monarch.  The remaining structure is example of geometry at it its simplest and most pure, with walls were left plain, except for some fluted columns. 
Djosers tomb stands powerfully over the Saqqara surroundings.  The stepped pyramid was the first monumental structure made of stone, yet fit in easily with the completed mud-brick surroundings and limestone enclosure wall.  The pyramid itself is worked into a landscape that was already in use and fortified with mud brick substructure.  Yet, in its completion, the entire landscape seamlessly would have flowed together, giving the emperor a grand palace and tomb that built itself within the established architecture at the time, while also dominating it with an immense new stone Pyramid. 
In Persia (modern day Iran), over the 6th century BC, power and opportunity, because of their Near East location, brought the rulers a vast empire to plenty of wealth.  Cyrus II, referred to as Cyrus the Great, was noted for the drastic expansion of Persia after the beginning of his rule in 559 BC.  In honor of this achievement, his predecessor, Darius, commissioned the construction of a grand ceremonial complex.  As the city selected, Susa, sat in the middle of the dessert, Darius had to import materials and labors for the massive project.  Consequently, the result was a mishmash of nearby aesthetics, Greek, Egyptian and Mesopotamian.  Ironically, this fit the Persian capital well, seeing as part of its success lied in the geographic center Persia played between these other civilizations.   Completed by Xerxes, Darius son, sometime in the first half of the 5th century BC, the massive complex was assembled on a gigantic grid, over 300 feet square,  raised 40 feet above the ground, surrounded by 72 columns, supporting a colossal roof.
An equally massive stairway was needed to reach the raised hall, and was an area travelers were forced to hike past.  Consequently, the attention was paid to show elaborate panels depicting exotic animals and gift bearing pilgrims carved along the walls surface.  Painted in scarlet, purple, and even gold leaf for Dairus crown, the panels would have been apt representations of the various cultures meeting at Persepolis to build the hall (Stokstad, 90).  As spectators climbed the stairs to the massive hall, they were met with this same visual allegory carved in stone, only they too become the pilgrim who has trekked to up the stairway in tribute.  Thus, the monument in itself as a tribute to Darius, Cyrus, and Persia itself, as the desert oasis would have symbolized power, wealth and intelligence in itself.  The entirety of the complex, added that it magnificently emerged from the will of one emperor shows how far these men would go to cement the legacy of their society and themselves. 
These two works of site specific architecture both leant a hand in reconfiguring the society in which they were built.  While one was built into the urban surroundings, with the other was constructed to create a new sense stylishly urbane, both were created with the purpose of exemplifying the artistic aptitude of the rulers people. This would become most apparent to visitors, who would be expected to marvel at the technological and artistic achievements in urban planning, and, as a result, marvel at the kingdom behind them.




Using two specific objects or monuments as case studies, discuss the role of art in constructing authority (political, social, or religious).

Since the beginning of time, it seems, art has been used to convey a visual signal of authority, which transfers from the person who creates (or commissions) to those who later observe it.  The manner in which one commands authority, however, is somewhat murky.  The most common practice is to use religious iconography, tied into a sense of overwhelming proportions or materials.  Combined, the two create awe in the spectator, as they are lured to the magnificence of the monument, both what it represents and what it physically is.
In an era dominated by images in both television and the internet, it may be hard to imagine how pivotal the renderings on religious buildings would be for the spectators of the era.   In a way, images were used to show prove of devotion, one only has to looks at the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, for example.  Monumental stone had been used previously thought to convey a sense of spiritual importance.  In the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, completed in 359 CE, the immensely sized marble tomb, measuring 4 by 8 feet, informs the viewer not only of the deceased but, more importantly, hope for spiritual redemption.  Like the doors, this too is divided between imagery from the Old and New Testaments, carved in relief form and circling the tomb.
The style of the sarcophagus is rather interesting, as the workmanship is superb and delicately rendered from a single slab of marble.  This work, however, casts its figures practically in full relief, projecting the figures forward, creating depth and shadowing that surrounds the carvings.  This tomb was meant to be seen and not buried.  With three sides of the work in high contrast relief, the structure would have sat nicely against a wall, and given spectators opportunity to run the narrative gamut depicted in each of the constructed vignettes, separated by typically roman columns. 
In the end, the viewer is met with something that is timeless.  While Bassuss body has fallen to dust, the principles he believed in are as alive and active as the sculpture that stands still through time.  The ideas become timeless artifacts of both the religious principle, as well as the religiosity of the man worthy of such a grand tomb.  
On St. Marys Cathedral in Hildesheim, Germany, relief carving was also used to convey biblical stories to the masses.  Only this time it was undertaken by the religious authority of the town.   Two immense bronze doors, showing sixteen relief panels, were commissioned by Bishop Bernward in 1059.  Each door stood towering, vertical and imposing, and immediately draws the eyes of the spectator.  Upon each door are a series of vignettes, all pivotal moments in biblical history.  These are divided into eight panels, and two registers. When read from the top left panel down, then right, and up again, in an exaggerated U shape, one is visually told the creation and fall of Man, the infancy of Jesus Christ through his crucifixion, and finally ending in the uppermost right panel with his resurrection. 
Clearly Bishop Bernward knew the visual importance of these narratives from the bible, as the instances are the cornerstones of old the New Testament narratives.  In making them larger than life, and visually imposing over the spectator, the stories are imbued with an added sense of importance, longevity, and scope.  They seem larger than life simply due to the size of the doors, their cumbersome and cold bronze, and their purpose as entrance into the spiritual safe house.
In the end, both the sarcophagus and towering bronze doors in Hildensheim depict two similar, but contradictory methods of using imagery to convey importance or power.  Additionally, while Bassuss tomb serves as a more personal homage to self importance and spirituality, than the Hildensheim doors, both use a rigid medium, covered with the icons of Old and New Testaments to give sanctuary to those held within.  They suggest that in religion, and the artistic rendering thereof, one can find peace for all eternity and for this reason, the religious practices should be marveled, respected, and adhered to.


How do images make space sacred  Using the examples of two specific religious structures from two different cultural traditions, discuss the role of imagery in shaping the different religious functions of each building, such as commemorating events of sacred history, teaching religious doctrine, defining the religious community, or facilitating communication with the divine.

In an era when literacy was scarce, yet faith was high, there was an increasing need to establish religious authority to spectators through visual means.  Important narratives in biblical texts could be rendered in pictures and told verbally, and allowed to foster in the imagination of the faithful.  As a result, there was an increasing desire to mark spaces and objects with religious icons, to both imbue them with spirituality and to attract the spiritually faithful.   The two examples selected here demonstrate how creating religious structures could transition from cozy and secluded caverns to elaborately decorated architectural feats.
The interior of the Synagogues at Dura-Europos in Syria is covered in wall paintings from the Old Testament.  While its hard to establish how much of the walls were truly covered in narrative scenes, the recovered portions of the synagogue, which was destroyed in 256 CE, show the shrine to many beliefs, from Jewish and Christian, to Greek and Roman.  This could be due to the shuffling rule that fostered in Syria at the time, causing the original synagogue to change religious purpose with each invading force.  
Still the Dura-Europos demonstrates allows modern scholars an ancient understanding of Jewish worship, which would happen intimately in the homes.  The excavated wall included a niche for Torah scrolls, a spot for a menorah, and scenes from the old testament (such as Abraham sacrificing Isaac) covering the plaster walls in enriching, warm tones.  The setting would have been common in many Jewish homes of the time, alluding to the importance of the religious text in the home, as well as the visual reminder of stories from said test.  These were private works of art to be enjoyed in the most cherished setting possible at the time, the family home.  The intimate setting for both worship and reflection is a stark contrast to later notions of what church and religion should be in the Christian society, when these became public events to be shared in glamously decorated buildings. 
Venice had been under Byzantine rule for over three centuries when Constantinople allowed it trading sovereignty between the East and West.  Consequently, the city became a place of great wealth and increased, power, and cultural exposure.   When a new church was to be constructed in the eleventh century, architects found inspiration in the Byzantine domed churches. 
Topped with five huge domes, in a Greek Cross, San Marco created five distinct areas with incredible vertical axis looming over the practitioners (Stokstad, 325).  Marble and golden mosaics cover the vaulted walls, demonstrating the immense wealth of the time.  Even the shape of the building itself lends to the idea that the structure is religiously sound in the eyes of God.  Additionally, the church, in its immense size, could fit entire communities inside for service, where the intended reaction was one of sublime awe at the magnificence of the church, while also overwhelmed by the spiritual scope of the beautiful mosaic ceilings.  As one looked up to see faces of the Saints and Jesus gazing downward, one would also be struck with a sense of insignificance in the grand scheme of life and death. 
This of course contradicts the notion of private religious servitude as found in the Dura-Europos, but the San Marco church also created a community of followers who all believed, practice, and shared a unified faith, mainly because of a communal space of shared images and iconography.  This, added with the semblance the Churchs (or Gods) monumental will in creating such a spectacularly large and imposing structure, only added the church in helping instruct its Divine will to the masses. 


Consider the relationship between text and imagery in at least two different objects or monuments.  How do the formal arrangement and content of the figural, decorative and inscribed elements affect the message of the whole

Standing over 60 feet tall, the Arch of Constantine is a work of geometric marvel, both vertically imposing it also demonstrates a wise use of curves and balance.  With a width of 75 feet, and a depth of over 20 feet, the arch is visually dominating from all perspectives.  It provokes a sense of dominion over nature in the use of geometry and size, suggesting that the creators could achieve anything.  The work is enhanced only more based on its location.  The arch stands proudly over the same road emperors used when marching into the city in Triumph.  These celebrations of successful warfare were common in the Roman civilization that quickly expanded nearly the entirety of Europe, and into Africa and the Near East.  
The arch is also decorated, heavily, with carvings, historic friezes, and messages noting the triumph of the arch and of Constantine himself.  Consequently, the arch becomes that of monument for both the successes of Rome, but as much, that of Constantine, that united Christianity with the Roman Empire.   The text in particular speaks to both the Christian and more secular Roman audience.  While the original letters that sat in the Arch have been lost, their recesses remain, showing a carving of the same text.  In it, Constantine is hailed as the inspired by the divine, and because of the greatness of his mind, he delivered the state from the tyrant (Storage). This text is coupled with reliefs of sacrifices to Roman gods Apollo and Diana, medallions of the sun and moon rising, and a main freeze around the perimeter of the arch, depicting Constantines victorious battles and return Rome.    Yet the text remains vague, and suggests that Constantine was on a crusade of sorts, committing the work of God to rid the state of the tyrannous Devil. 
This self aggrandizing was common with Roman emporias, but later Constantine united Rome with the Christian church under the belief that the two forces, combined, could rule the world through domination of art, iconography, geometry, and war.  All these elements are evident in the Arch, which soon become elements associated with both ancient Rome and the power of faith in Christianity.  Thus, whenever any forces, Roman or challenging, marched through the archway to Roman, they levity and history of their footsteps would be reinforced.  While not necessarily holy ground, Constantine, through the union of Roman geometric principles and vaguely spiritual text, gives the archway spiritual heft.
On the other hand, the Lindisfarne Gospels demonstrate a different type of unity of text and image.  Instead of placing text in place of mass absorption, the text and image found themselves united in Latin manuscripts of the Gospels of Matthew, mark, Luke and John.  Produced in the era after Roman rule of Brittan, the Gospels depict typical script of the medieval era.  The letters are highly decorated, and matched with the portraits of Evangelicals, rendered flatly, without care for depth or humanistic representation.  This may have been a reflex against the highly geometric and realist aesthetics of Rome, or more simply, a simplified two dimensional rendering without care for dimension or perspective.  What was more important than the image was the text, which combined the aboriginal Celtic themes with that of Christian text and religious schooling.  In uniting the two, much like the arch of Constantine, the Gospels demonstrate how visually iconographic Celtic and British imagery could meld with Christian text to create something that appeared organic and natural for those raised only on the theology of the time.
Thus, it becomes apparent how text can be used to decipher imagery or to enhance it.  In both cases of the Constantine Arch and the Lindisfarne Gospels, the principles of Christianity are married to the standard artistic principles of the region, whether geometric sculpture design or Celtic script and knots.  In uniting the two, Christianity is given added importance to the local culture and accepted as a natural aspect thereof.

Before putting an insight into the life of Roberto Cavalli, let us become acquainted with the term fashion and what its future is. Fashion is a term usually used to describe a style of clothing worn by people of a country. A fashion usually remains popular for a period of about one to three years and then another fashion replaces it. As there are a lot of changes in fashion, most people do not easily give their acceptance to the changes. When a style is introduced as a fashion, its use becomes a custom when it is passed to next generation.
Fashion has a bright future. Fashion designers are trying every possible way of merging their creations with technology. They have designed dresses that monitor and react to bad air quality. Even the dresses that generate electricity have been developed. Fashion is just trying to communicate with the IT world. Fashion can be interpreted in terms of technology also like cool gadgets. Fashion will not show any signs of slow down in the coming decades. Even the make-ups will be technology oriented. A great role will be played by digitalization. There will be production of advanced fabrics which will be conducive in creating smart lifestyle. It is up to designers to explore innovative ideas and to take fashion to the ascent.
 One such fashion designer who has carried the baton is Roberto Cavalli. Born in Florence, Italy to an artistic family, he is known as The King of Fashion. He is known for experimentation with his works and designs. When one thinks of him, one is reminded of his incorporating of animal prints or metallic in almost every design he creates. Cavalli is known for his lavish style of living. He has designed for many models and film stars. One thing, in his account, is very creative and innovative is that many of his collections are inspired by the items present in his homes. Through his works, one gets a blend of fashion and taste. He uses his elemental fundamentals to enrich his works and designs. Cavalli has created a new frontier of fashion.
Roberto Cavalli has a highly idiosyncratic style. He is deeply focused on details and prefers experimenting with excesses, opposing and balancing them in a new harmony. Roberto Cavalli creates his vibrant and stimulating patterns by using the most advanced technologies, but he draws his inspiration from nature as his flora and fauna prints testify. He travels the world with a digital camera in hand, ready to capture whatever allures him and transforms it into a new motif.
Roberto Cavalli, grandson of famous impressionist painter Giuseppe Rossi, took no time in carrying forward his family tradition of artistic ability. He made his own name using his instinctive talent of creating clothes. He is proficient at leather work and has mastered the art of using leather as a fabric as well as in accessories. His genuine skills lie in revamping classics rather than offering new silhouettes. The word indecency has no place in his dictionary. He makes people look good without looking indecent. There lies his versatility. Only this is the reason that he is admired all around the world.
 Many fashion designers bear very little similarity to their patrons but it is only this flamboyant designer who knows well what the young generation wants. It is his mature and sensible sense of fashion that has taken him far ahead of his contemporaries (Tyson, 2008). What ever he does, what ever he designs and what ever he creates becomes a classic for the generations to come. He shows a very soft, delicate and romantic temperament towards his works and that is what is reflected when people wear them. His works over the years have led him to successfully survive the cut throat competition posed by the fashion industry and last but not least, it was his patience which steered clear his ship and made him a force to reckon with.

Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno in Aesthetic Theory (1970) It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist. (pessimistic postmodernist view).

The concept of art include a concept fine art, which is created to express authors creativity. Instead, commercial art is created by order and refers to objects created for commercial purposes, yet bearing features of art (Novitz (1992) The Boundaries of Art)

The elements of art are skill (artists specific training to create an artwork) and craft (authors technical method). Modern artists are criticized for lack of both, primitivism and meanness. It is questionable whether modern art exists at all. Some certainty exists only with the criterion of value. Art is always valuable, although this value may be recognized after some while. Necessary precondition for art is artists ability to follow the spirit of the time. Modern art would not be considered as art in the previous ages.

Art is classified in terms of genre, form and medium. The latter is most important painting, sculpture, literature, music, etc. Genre depends on the object and purpose monumental art, chamber art, etc. The style depends mostly on method and means used for artistic expression (Classical art, Gothic, national arts like Chinese art, European art, etc). Robertson, Craig (2005) Themes of Contemporary Art.

The Carolingian manuscript discusses and attempts to explain a variety of different questions beginning with the relationship of mutual understanding and support between the Pope Leo III and the first Christian emperor, Charlemagne, to the difference between the artistic and cultural understanding of the word  gothic  and the changes in outlook that came about in art with the decline of religion and upswing of science of the last two centuries. The article mentions examples of art like York Minister, the Chartres Cathedral and the San Vitale in Ravenna to emphasize the difference between Gothic architecture and the style in which the Aachen temple was built. The author also brings up the topic of the representation of saints in the bibles of Charlemagne s era and their authenticity. Charlemagne explains that the earliest representations of these saints were drawn out of second hand evidence or testimony and are thus all merely copies of copies none which accurately capture the real people they seek to illustrate.

Through the article, the author wants us to believe that the revival of Roman art and culture, something that had been dormant under the Goths even though they sought to behave like the late Romans, began and flourished during the period of Charlemagne s reign. At the same time, he also highlights the barbaric methods the emperor employed in order to unite the European continent under one banner. The interview style in which the article is written and the supporting artistic references provided by the author lend it an element of authenticity. He concludes by defining the major difference between the time of Charlemagne and the conditions that spawned the creation of the Post-Romantic art. He credited it to the issue of belief and the extent of knowledge available to the modern man as compared to the medieval one. The writing style employed by the author is simple, but at times, the flow of questions seems a bit disconnected. Nonetheless, he manages to bring out the main theme of the piece, Charlemagne s rule and the revival of the arts in an interesting and readable manner.

Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno in Aesthetic Theory (1970) It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist. (pessimistic postmodernist view).
The concept of art include a concept fine art, which is created to express authors creativity. Instead, commercial art is created by order and refers to objects created for commercial purposes, yet bearing features of art (Novitz (1992) The Boundaries of Art)
The elements of art are skill (artists specific training to create an artwork) and craft (authors technical method). Modern artists are criticized for lack of both, primitivism and meanness. It is questionable whether modern art exists at all. Some certainty exists only with the criterion of value. Art is always valuable, although this value may be recognized after some while. Necessary precondition for art is artists ability to follow the spirit of the time. Modern art would not be considered as art in the previous ages.
Art is classified in terms of genre, form and medium. The latter is most important painting, sculpture, literature, music, etc. Genre depends on the object and purpose monumental art, chamber art, etc. The style depends mostly on method and means used for artistic expression (Classical art, Gothic, national arts like Chinese art, European art, etc). Robertson, Craig (2005) Themes of Contemporary Art.

Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) Baroque
Dutch baroque artist, symbol of 17th century Dutch art. Was broadly recognized during life, yet forgotten for 2 centuries after death. Rediscovered by French art criticist Thophile Thor-Brger (mid-19th century).
 Known for painting of landscapes and domestic interior scenes as well as allegoric paintings (The Art of Painting). Known for using transparent colors and light effects and for unusual compositions. Used small format of paintings. Probably used modern technologies of the time, including camera obscura (disputable among art historians).
Mentors (predecessors) Leonaert Bramer, Abraham Bloemaert, Michelangelo da Caravaggio (Utrecht Carravagists), Nicolaes Maes, Pieter de Hoogh.
Pupils (followers) Han van Meegeren, Salvador Dal,
Famous paintings Christ in the House of Martha and Mary (1655), Girl reading a Letter at an Open Window (1657), The Little Street (1658), The Little Street (1657), The Milkmaid (1658), View of Delft (1660), Woman in Blue Reading a Letter (1664), Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665), The Allegory of Painting (1667), The Astronomer (1668), The Geographer (1668), The Love Letter (1670).
References Bonafoux P. (1992) Vermeer. New York Konecky  Konecky.
Cant, Serena (2009). Vermeer and His World 16321675, Quercus Publishing Plc.

Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851). Romanticism
British  landscape painter, watercolorist and printmaker. Renowned as person who dramatically raised the value of landscape painting by discovering new expression methods for landscape painting. Painted in oil and watercolors. Paid much attention to color and light, often considered as preface to impressionism. Was seen as a controversial painter during his life, gained universal recognition in his late years and after death. Developed from traditional British landscape painting towards dramatizing the landscapes and giving them additional intrinsic meaning.
Mentors (predecessors) Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Hardwick, Walter Ramsden Fawkes.
Pupils (followers) Impressionists,
Famous paintings The Battle of Trafalgar, as Seen from the Mizen Starboard Shrouds of the Victory (1806), Snow Storm Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps (1812), The Battle of Trafalgar (1822), The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons (1833), The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to Her Last Berth to Be Broken (1838), Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On) (1840), Rain, Steam and Speed - The Great Western Railway (1844).
References Finberg (1961) The Life of J.M.A. Turner, R.A, Oxford Clarendon Press.

Kazimir Malevich 1879-1935 (Modernism, Supermatist movement)
Russian painter of Polish origin, theoretician of art, founder of new approach towards art. Known for avangardism and nihilism towards previous art forms.  Viewed as artistic brawler scorned by advocates of traditional art and admired by left avant-gardist artists. Presently recognized as a landmark artist of 20th century.
Placed form and shape in the centre of his art, used to play with geometric proportions and figures of different colors. Manifested his art by the famous Black Square, as well as Black Circle and Red Square.
Mentors (predecessors) Fedor Rerberg, Vladimir Tatlin, Aristarkh Lentulov, Natalia Goncharova, Mikhail Larionov.
Pupils (followers) Russian avant-gardists. 
Famous paintings The Woodcutter (1912), Reaper on Red Background (1913), The Aviator (1914), An Englishman in Moscow (1914), Soldier of the First Division (1914), Black Square (1915) Red Square (1915), Suprematist Composition (1915), Red Square Painterly Realism of a Peasant Woman in Two Dimensions (1915), Complex Presentiment Half-Figure in a Yellow Shirt (1932), Red-cavalry (1932), Running Man 1934).
References Milner (1966)Malevich, Kazimir, Kazimir Malevich and the art of geometry, Yale University Press

Dorothea Lange 1895-1965 (photographer)
Influential American documentalist photographer, famous for her photographs of Great Depression. Langes style was profoundly humanist. Aimed to attract public attention to social consequences of the economic crisis. Langes Migrant mother is viewed as a visible symbol of Great Depression. Deeply affected the development of documentary photography.
Initially worked in a photostudio in New York. Left to make documentary pictures of Great Depression being employed by Federal Resettlement Administration. Preferred documentary genre and realistic style. Has not used additional tools to process her photographs. Paid much attention to composition, often arranged certain amendments to scene and gave advices to her models, although never invented facts for her photographs.

The Carolingian manuscript discusses and attempts to explain a variety of different questions beginning with the relationship of mutual understanding and support between the Pope Leo III and the first Christian emperor, Charlemagne, to the difference between the artistic and cultural understanding of the word  gothic  and the changes in outlook that came about in art with the decline of religion and upswing of science of the last two centuries. The article mentions examples of art like York Minister, the Chartres Cathedral and the San Vitale in Ravenna to emphasize the difference between Gothic architecture and the style in which the Aachen temple was built. The author also brings up the topic of the representation of saints in the bibles of Charlemagne s era and their authenticity. Charlemagne explains that the earliest representations of these saints were drawn out of second hand evidence or testimony and are thus all merely copies of copies none which accurately capture the real people they seek to illustrate.
Through the article, the author wants us to believe that the revival of Roman art and culture, something that had been dormant under the Goths even though they sought to behave like the late Romans, began and flourished during the period of Charlemagne s reign. At the same time, he also highlights the barbaric methods the emperor employed in order to unite the European continent under one banner. The interview style in which the article is written and the supporting artistic references provided by the author lend it an element of authenticity. He concludes by defining the major difference between the time of Charlemagne and the conditions that spawned the creation of the Post-Romantic art. He credited it to the issue of belief and the extent of knowledge available to the modern man as compared to the medieval one. The writing style employed by the author is simple, but at times, the flow of questions seems a bit disconnected. Nonetheless, he manages to bring out the main theme of the piece, Charlemagne s rule and the revival of the arts in an interesting and readable manner.

In Thomas Coles painting The Oxbow we see a lush landscape from the top of a mountain. The hills are covered in greenery and in the distance one can see a river. The sky is partly obscured with clouds. The subject of the painting is a view of f of the top of Mount Holyoke in Northampton, Massachusetts at the end of a summer thunderstorm. The painting measures 51  x76 inches. The primary materials are oil on canvas. The main colors are the colors of nature, rich brown, verdant green and sky blue. The painting was created in 1836 and clearly shows that it was part of the school of Romanticism that was common at the time.
    In style this appears to be a fairly traditional landscape painting however, as one looks closer one notice elements that make this painting significantly different from other landscape paintings of the time. First, other landscape paintings during this period often appear flat and dull. However Coles painting is not. He uses bright colors, curved shapes and light and shadow to create a painting that almost appears to leap off the canvas. Cole also focuses on the wild forests and fields rather than on the traditional pastoral landscapes of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
    Cole plays with light and shadow using what appears to be the chiaroscuro technique in order to create a vision of the sky partly covered in clouds. The use of light and shadow also is used to emphasize the curves of the river as it winds its way through the valley below. Cole primarily uses a linear perspective in the painting, with the focal point of the painting being the hill or mountain in the distance. Light and shadow are used to draw ones eye to this point, and emphasize the ending of the thunderstorm.
    Cole also uses shape as a method of drawing the viewers eye to the central focal point of Mount Holyoke. His shapes are mainly curved and there are few angular lines in the painting. Even the sole tree that is outlined in the lower left corner of the painting has a curved shape as if it has been bowed by the winds and rains of the thunderstorm. The shapes also are used to emphasize the mountain in the distance with the island in the center of the river being used to draw ones eye toward the mountain.
    Color is also used in a fairly unique way in this painting. Cole uses lush greens, deep browns and sky blue to emphasize the wild nature of the setting. He also uses color to emphasize the perspective of the painting. Brighter colors are used in the forefront of the painting and as Cole draw ones eye towards the focal point of the mountain.  The colors are also used to emphasize the wildness of nature, and the ideas behind the painting. Cole focuses on color as a means of portraying wild nature in its untamed form.
    In comparison Vincent van Goghs painting Starry Night  is completely different. This painting is a nightscape depicting the nighttime sky over a small village. This painting is part of the Impressionist style of art. It measures 72x92 cm and is created with oil on a canvas background. The primary colors in the painting are yellow, white, dark blue, green and black. The focal point of this painting is the nighttime sky.
    Unlike Coles painting which focuses on light rather than shadow, Van Goghs painting is more dark. He emphasizes the darkness and uses darker grimmer colors than Cole which perhaps can be interpreted as reflective of his personality. Van Goghs use of color was somewhat out of the norm for a Impressionist Era artist as Impressionist artists typically used much brighter colors as well as pastels.
    The use of light and shadow in this painting are also very evident in this work. Van Gogh uses darkness more than light. Darkness emphasizes the village and the landscape and this draws ones attention to the nighttime sky where Van Gogh uses light to emphasize the brilliance of the stars in the nighttime sky. Van Gogh also uses light and shadow to emphasize certain things in the forefront of the painting such as the tree on the lower left hand side of the painting.
    Van Goghs use line and shape in this painting is marvelous. He uses the swirls of the paint, and the curved shapes of the tree in the foreground and the mountains in the background only serve to emphasize the starry sky. The line and shape are also used to emphasize the impact of humanity on nature as the village down below is the only aspect of the painting that is comprised entirely of more angular, hard edged shapes.
    Although this is significantly different in style from Coles The Oxbow many of the same artistic elements such as use of light and shadow, a unique artistic perspective in comparison to other artists of the same school and an emphasis on the wildness of nature are present in these paintings . Van Goghs style emphasizes his darker nature, and temperament whereas Cole focuses more on the wilderness itself.
    Van Goghs main focus on the night sky also enables him to play with textures as well. Unlike many paintings which appear flat, Van Gogh uses the swirls and texture of the paint to emphasize the focal point of his painting. This gives a clearer impression of the night sky and the stars and makes it clear what the central theme of Van Goghs painting is.
    It can be concluded, that the works of Cole and Van Gogh were stylistically unique for the time. Each had unique elements in terms of texture, color, and line that set the paintings out from the rest. Each paintings style also reflected the personality and aims of the artists.

The city of Ancient Rome, a rich city, filled with numerous historic events held at historic places known as the great ancient civilization. The Romans ruled as a supreme civilization in ancient times (Benton  DiYanni, 1999). Numerous generals would hail as heroes to their country by conquering lands and great battles. The Roman Empire would often offer gifts to their heroes as a sign of gratitude. Constantine, one of Romes great leaders, was erected an arch to commemorate his victory over Maxentius (Seindal, 2003). Up to this date, the Arch of Constantine is one of the three largest arches still together and standing in Rome. The Arch of Constantine is a great work of art because the arch itself has adopted different styles in architecture, as various elements are present such as the earlier sculptures of great emperors such as  HYPERLINK httpsights.seindal.dksight750_Trajan.html o Trajan - Roman Emperor (98-117 CE) Trajan, HYPERLINK httpsights.seindal.dksight740_Hadrian.html o Hadrian - Roman Emperor (117-138 CE) Hadrianand HYPERLINK httpsights.seindal.dksight839_Marcus_Aurelius.html o Marcus Aurelius - Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who were known already in the time of  HYPERLINK httpsights.seindal.dksight743_Constantine_I.html o Constantine I - Roman Emperor (306-337 CE) Constantineas the Good Emperors (Seindal, 2003).
The main reasons why The Arch of Constantine is a great work of art are due to the following (1) the use of spolia, (2) the rich source of history found in the inscriptions on the arch and, (3) the transition of architectural style era by era. The Arch of Constantine was a monument built to commemorate not only his victory but victories by other great generals as well. The Forum of Trajan had pillars that the Arch of Constantine possessed as well. There were also traces of the Hadrians Roundels found in the southern and northern faces of the arch (Benton  DiYanni, 1999). Aside from the similarities, the inscriptions engraved on the monument gave great importance to historians as it revealed more about the Ancient Roman civilization.
Overall, the Arch of Constantine is not only a great work of art but a treasure of human civilization as well. Arch is an extraordinary illustration of architecture that is a true representation of Constantines repute and charisma during his era. Decoration of the Arch is another distinctive factor that distinguishes it from other architectural monuments of the human history. In specific, medallions, relief frieze, hunting textures, and bronze inscriptions are some of the significant attributes of the Arch of Constantine that makes it one of the most popular pieces of artwork (Benton  DiYanni, 1999).
Another significant notion about the Arch of Constantine is the notion of recycled monument related to it. A number of archaeologists believe that Arch of Constantine is a recycled monument created from historical monument, and thus, it has been a successful work of art that utilized existing building structures while adding new material to it, in order to create a an astonishing triumphal arch in Rome (Seindal, 2003). Conclusively, the paper has discussed some of the significant aspects of the Arch of Constantine that has been one of the most prominent and popular artworks from the ancient period. It is an expectation that the paper will be beneficial for students, teachers, and professionals in better understanding of the topic.

Though it is hard to believe that the commonest of the domesticated animals like the cat could ascend to the rank of a powerful goddess, that was exactly what happened in Egypt long time back and such a tradition lasted no less four thousand years, if researched evidences are anything to go by (Scott, 1958). In that period cats were even found to share graves with Egyptians (Bisno, 1997).  Accordingly, a special branch of art called cat-art stemmed out of this association and spread all across the Egyptian society in many forms, covering religion, lifestyle and fashion. In the process, it adorned their buildings, temples, and even their ornaments in the shape of paintings, relics, murals, mummies, amulets or earrings and what not. Therefore, this study explores cat-art to find how a religious bond between Egyptians and cats influenced a particular line of art.

Background
In a 2000 B.C. Egyptian version, cats were mentioned as good hunters (Wilkinson, 1988) and according to the scientists Egyptian cats belonged to the family of African wildcat and they matched the description of two species (Felis silvestris libyca and Felis chaus). Both the species are larger in size than the average domesticated cats. Egyptians called them Mit-s or Miuts, and placed them to the rank of divinity.


Figure 1  2 Hunting cat of Egypt (Scott, 1954)
The documentations on cats social rise were found in the tombs built around 1540 to 1069 B.C (Springer, 2001). For example, a pyramid script had recorded a duel between a serpent and the cat-goddess Mafdet, who won the battle, but soon lost her fame to Bastet (known in many names like Bast, Miw, Pasch, and Ubasti), who emerged as the new cat-goddess with a body of a woman and a head of a cat, after defeating another cat-goddess Sekhmet, who was lioness-headed. Accordingly the Egyptians enthroned her to the highest pedestal by dedicating a whole city to her.
According to mythology, Bastet was the grand daughter of the sun god Ra (Milo, 1997). However, Scott (1954) argues that Bastets original animal was in reality a lioness, which in all probability could be an imported item with the invasion of Libyan kings as a totem of their origin and then was posited with pomp.

Figure 3 Bastet in Bronze
Bastets influence as a divine power gained momentum in 1600 B.C., when she received high attention from the kings, especially in the time of the XXII Dynasty (Scott, 1954). In the process, cats, which were considered as the embodiment of Bastet, became prominent in the daily lives of the Egyptians and started appearing on objects in many forms. 

Figure 4 Modern Imagination of Bastet
The city dedicated to Bastet called Bubastis, meaning realm of the cat, was strategically well placed at the southwest portion of Nile River and prospered accordingly. It hosted an annual festival each year to celebrate Bastets coronation, which continued till 350 B.C., before Persians invaded the area (Cats, 2007). That was quite a long stretch of time, if one counts the initiation of this festival at Bubastis since 3200 B.C. There was even a fixed date for this festival  October 31 of each year, when people from all around including Memphis would gather there for both praying and partying.


Figure 5 Goddess Bastet at Bubastis

Gradually the cult of cats engulfed the Egyptians and it is widely believed that they even surrendered to the Persians to save their cats, who were kept hostage by the wicked general of the Persians, who knew about the vulnerability of the Egyptians regarding their pets (Scott, 1954 Coll, 1997).
According to the account of Herodotus (Briar, 1994), the Egyptians even enacted death punishment for anyone found guilty of killing a cat, and there was the custom of mourning at the death of a cat in an Egyptian family, where the family members would shave their eyebrows as a part of the ritual. Herodotus also highly praised the beauty of Bastet temple at Bubastis (Scott, 1954), besides presenting an account of its great annual festival. The fall of this civilization was also linked with the cat, according to some researchers who assume that Persian king Cambyses gained his victory at Pelusim in 525 B.C. by using cats as the shield of his army, as he knew that Egyptians would never kill the cats (Scott, 1954).
Content and Form of Cat Art
Egyptian Cat Art is a formal and statuesque form of art, and the sculptures fit more in building decorations, as most of them carry a similar profile, which, by modern features of cat shows some difference, where it has a little longish face, with a long forehead leading to a longish muzzle. That creates the impression that the cats depicted in the statues do not represent its domesticated species, and instead, they reflect the thought of the then craftsmen who wanted to add divinity on this animal since it was considered as the embodiment of Bastet and was worshipped in temples (Egyptian, 2009). The cat artifacts can be divided into five categories, such as bronze artifacts, wooden artifacts, marble artifacts, paintings and moldings. All cat figures are represented in the same seated position, but there is a difference in the styles and skill of the craftsmen, however, overall it creates an impression that then artists wanted to frame certain characteristics of cat in their figures, such as dignity, grace and aloofness (Scott, 1954)



Figure 6 Mummied cat
The picture above can be considered as a sample of Egyptian cat art expressed in mummy. Cats were embalmed in this manner, before their burial in special cemeteries. There are two contrasting views regarding such lavish treatment of Egyptians on cats after their death  one, it could have been the religious awe, and two, it could have been the Egyptians penchant for mummy-making art.

Figure 7 Cat-Art
In the later part of the Egyptian civilization cats became an instrument of Egyptian symbolism, as Egyptians considered it a sacred animal of the Sun God, where the male cat was regarded as an incarnation of the Sun God and the female cat was considered as the solar eye. Feline figures displayed a scarab, the symbol of the rising sun, engraved on the head or breast thus depicting their solar significance. Hundreds of cat figures were set up as votive offerings in the temple at Bubastis in order that the donor might share in the Goddesss grace.

Figure 8 Cats all around
Bastet was regarded as the goddess of sunrise, music, dance, pleasure, family, fertility, birth and protection. This state of affairs heavily influenced the art of the region for a long time, where it engulfed every sphere of the Egyptian world. There are innumerable tomb paintings around Egypt that contain a same theme, like a cat seated below a chair, which corroborates that assumption, since such artworks create the impression that Egyptians wanted to remain close with the embodiment of Bastet and thus such theme of art came into being. Then all classes of population in Egypt wore little amulets in the form of or engraved with figures of Bastets cat to guard them against misfortune and to ensure fertility. The earrings with cat figures were also popular.

    In 1928, a baby was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who grew up and revolutionized the face of contemporary art scene. This lad was named Andrew Warhola (Andrew Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts). He was the youngest among all the children of Andrej Warhola and Julia Zavacky Warhola. It was at Holmes Elementary School and Schenley High School that Warhol received his formal education. In college, he opted to study at Carnegie Institute of Technology where he studied with Balcomb Greene, Robert Lepper, Samuel Rosenberg, and others. Furthermore, it was during this period that Warhol started to alter his name. He used the name Andr when he signed Christmas cards and he removed the last letter a in his surname. By 1949, he already earned his degree in Fine Arts with a major in Pictorial Design. Also, it was at this time that he started to use Andy Warhol as his reference name (PBS.org).

    After college, Warhol immediately wandered off to New York to seek better career opportunities. Initially, he worked as a commercial artist and illustrator for magazines and newspapers. But it was his works for New Yorks finest fashion houses that sparked his popularity in the art scene. His specific work for I. Miller  Sons, a shoe manufacturer, which was characterized as both charming and whimsical won major awards from the Art Directors Club (qtd. in Livingstone). 

Even though Warhol was experiencing success in commercial art, he decided to shift his interest. Warhol was driven to be known as a serious talented painter. His early artworks were a series of pictures based on crude advertisements and on images from comic strips. More so, this type of art style of Warhol was influenced by Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg who were established modern artists during the 1960s. This became the start for the Pop Art Movement. In his works, Water Heater (1960), Saturdays Popeye (1960) and as Before and After 3 (1962), Warhol was able to paint in mock-expressive style that parodied the gestural brushwork of Abstract Expressionism. Also, he demonstrated his skills in creating a new style characterized by hard outlines and flat areas of color (qtd. in Livingstone). 

Due to Warhols unconventional art style and subjects, he was regarded by many as a Pop Icon. He pained common objects such as Campbell soup Cans and Coca Cola bottles. In addition to this, he made silkscreen print images of famous celebrities of the 60s such as Marilyn Monroe and Elizabeth Taylor. For Warhol, this is his way of eliminating the border line between commercial art and fine arts. He once said When you think about it, department stores are kind of like museums. Because of this notion, Warhol mass produced his paintings that lead to the establishment of The Factory. This was the venue where he employed in a rather chaotic way art workers to mass produce mainly prints and posters but also other items like shoes designed by the artist. More so, he utilized the technique of silkscreen printmaking to promote his belief of the proliferation of art. The Factory did not only serve as an art studio but also as a location for most of his experimental films (Wanzcura).

Through Warhols unremitting and bold development in his craft, he was able to change how the public perceive art. He had the ability to attract the publics interest, to make interesting remarks and to get hold of a common image that can shock people and endure time. Because of this, Warhol was considered as one of the most influential and widely emulated artists of his time (McGill).